OCEN 201

Introduction to Ocean &

Coastal Engineering
Basics of Naval Architecture
Jun Zhang
Jun-zhang@tamu.edu
Ships by Configurations

Surface displacement: Conventional ships
(single hull); Catamaran (double hull, large deck
area, small displacement, excellent stability).
Near (above) Surface: Air cushion vehicles;
Hydrofoils and planning hull craft (small
displacement, high speed)
Submerged: Submersibles; submarines;
Underwater habitats; Submerged buoys.
Semi submersibles: Very deep, small water
plane
Bottom supported: Temporary & Permanent
jack-up;
Tanker (with a bulbous bow)
Small Water-plane Area Twin-Hull (SWATH)
Ferry (Catamaran, or SWATH)
Container Ship
Container Ship
Cruise ship with a bulbous bow
Trimaran
Tri-maran Sailboat
View from the below
Hydrofoil Craft
Hover Craft
or Air Cushion
Craft
Rules and Regulations
The rules and regulations are issued by organizations
which may be divided into three categories:
-Classification societies: have established standards
of construction by the production of rules which
have done much to ensure the safety of ships. (ABS,
DNV, BV)
-Governmental Authorities: concern for the safety
of ships and the well being of all who sail the ships
(behavior of the people). (Coast Guard)
-International Authorities, IMO (International
Maritime Organization)
Basic Topics of Naval Architecture
Hull: Hydrostatic, hydrodynamic
performance (Resistance)*

Structure: Strength of hull**

Machinery and Propulsion: Main engine**
& propellers*

Ship Control: (maneuvering, sea keeping)**

Deck Machinery**

Navigation: Sensors & Radar**

Communications**

Damage Control:**

Rigging and Mooring:*

Economic feasibility:**

** Not covered in detail
Definition (Terminology):

Principal Dimensions (length, breadth, depth etc)
-Length.
Lbp ( or Lpp) Length between two perpendiculars

FP Forward perpendicular (vertical line through intersection
of stem and waterline (w.l).)
AP Backward perpendicular (vertical line through the center
of rudder pintle)

Loa Overall Length
Lwl Waterline Length (calculation length)

also see Table 6-2 at p175 (old edition at p142)
W.L.
A.P
Loa
Lwl
Amid Ship
Lbp
F.P.
Forward Sheer
After Sheer
Sheer is the height measured between deck at side and base line.
Definition (Terminology):

Principal Dimensions
-Breadth, depth & draft.
Breadth (moulded) (inside of plate on one side to another side)
Breadth maximum
Depth (measured at midship)
Camber the rise of the deck at the centerline. 2% of breadth
Bilge radius
Rise of Floor
Flat of keel (thicker plate)
Tumber home
Rake of stem
Draught and trim
Flat of Keel
Rise of Floor
Depth
Moulded
Breadth
moulded

Bilge radius
Centerline
Deck
Base Line (Top of
Flate keel)
Camber
Breadth Extreme
Fonder
w.l.
Draft (d)
Mid Cross Section of a ship
If W.L. is parallel to the baseline (keel line),
the ship is floating evenly.
If not parallel, the ship has a trim.
Trim = da df
Trim (in radians) = (da df )/ L
Average draft = (da + df )/ 2
Free board (f.b) is the distance measured
downwards from the deck to the W.L.
Usually f.b. is minimum at midship
Minimum f.b is required by International
Law.
Line Drawing:

Using the methods of descriptive geometry, the form of
a hull is drawn on a scale (1:50 or 1:200) drawing,
which is called Lines Drawing, or simply the lines
or lines plan. (See p34 Figure 3.4 Lines plan).

Lines drawing mainly consists of three plan views

Sheer plane (Buttock plane, Buttock lines) : parallel
to the longitudinal central plane (2m, 4m, etc are the
distances from the center plane)


Half-Breadth plane (Water plane, Waterline planes):
parallel to the base plane (2m, 4m, .are the distance
form the base plane)

Body Plan (Ordinate station, Transverse section,
0-10 bow stern (US), 10-0 (UK)): parallel to the mid-
section (# of stations indicated the distance from the
mid-section or bow).

Diagonals (Bilge Diagonal)
Fair form and fairness of line, checking the
consistency of point, smoothness of lines
Table of Offsets

Line Drawing
Hull characteristics (coeff.)

Displacement and Weight Relationship

B (buoyancy) = W (weight). (conventional
ship)
displacement volume B = =

Appendage volume 1%
V
V
V
Hull characteristics (coefficients
(non-dimensional)
- Coefficient of Form ( Fatness of a hull)
Block Coefficient C
B



where L= Lpp or Lbp and T = Draft
C
B
0.38~0.90 even bigger

- Midship Section Coefficient
C
M
= immersed area of mishap section (A) / (BT)
0.67~0.98
B
C
LBT
V
=
-Prismatic or Longitudinal Coefficient: 0.55~0.80




-Waterplane Coefficient






-Displacement /Length Ratio

B
P
M M
C
C
L A L B T C C
V V
= = =

area of water plane
0.67 - 0.87
where --Length of Load water plane
= Beam of W.P.
WP
C
LB
L
B
=
3 3
B
B
C LBT B T
C
L L L L
V
= =
-Breadth /Length Ratio :


-Draft/Length Ratio


-Draft/Breadth Ratio


-These coefficients are related to the resistance and
stability of the ship and can be used to estimate
them empirically.
B
L
T
L
T
B
Important Hydro-Static Curves or Relations
(see Fig. 6-3, pp148)

Displacement Curves (displacement [molded, total]
vs. draft, weight [SW, FW] vs. draft (T))

Coefficients Curves (C
B
, C
M
, C
P
, C
WL
, vs. T)

VCB (KB, Z
B
): Vertical distance of Center of
Buoyancy (C.B) to the baseline vs. T

LCB (LCF, X
B
): Longitudinal Distance of C.B or
floatation center (C.F) to the midship vs. T
Stability
A floating body reaches to an equilibrium state, if
1) its weight = the buoyancy
2) the line of action of these two forces become collinear.

The equilibrium: stable, or unstable or neutrally stable.
Stable equilibrium: if it is slightly displaced from its
equilibrium position and will return to that position.

Unstable equilibrium: if it is slightly displaced form its
equilibrium position and tends to move farther away from
this position.

Neutral equilibrium: if it is displaced slightly from this
position and will remain in the new position.

Motion of a Ship:
6 degrees of freedom
- Surge
- Sway
- Heave
- Roll
- Pitch
- Yaw

Axis
Translation Rotation
x Longitudinal Surge Neutral S. Roll S. NS. US
y Transverse Sway Neutral S. Pitch S.
z Vertical Heave S. (for sub, N.S.) Yaw NS
Righting & Heeling Moments

A ship or a submarine is designed to float in the
upright position.

Righting Moment: exists at any angle of
inclination where the forces of weight and buoyancy
act to move the ship toward the upright position.

Heeling Moment: exists at any angle of inclination
where the forces of weight and buoyancy act to
move the ship away from the upright position.
G---Center of Gravity, B---Center of Buoyancy

M--- Transverse Metacenter,
If M is above G, we will have a righting moment, and
if M is below G, then we have a heeling moment.
W.L
For a displacement ship,
For submarines (immersed in water)
G
B
G
If B is above G, we have righting moment
If B is below G, we have heeling moment
Upsetting Forces (overturning moments)

Beam wind, wave & current pressure

Lifting a weight (when the ship is loading or unloading in the
harbor.)

Offside weight (C.G is no longer at the center line)

The loss of part of buoyancy due to damage (partially flooded,
C.B. is no longer at the center line)

Turning

Grounding
Static Stability & Dynamical Stability

Static Stability: Studying the magnitude of the
righting moment given the inclination (angle) of the
ship*.
(That is, the rolling velocity and energy are not
considered.)

Dynamic Stability**: Calculating the amount of work
done by the righting moment given the inclination of
the ship.
Static Stability
1. The initial stability (aka stability at small
inclination) &,
2. the stability at large inclinations.
The initial stability: studies the right moments or right
arm at small inclination angles (< 5 degree).
The stability at large inclination (angle): computes the
right moments (or right arms) as function of the inclination
angle, up to a limit angle at which the ship may lose its
stability (capsizes). (Cross curves of stability (see Fig.
6-7 at pp 156) & Curves of Static Stability (see Fig. 6-8
at pp157) )

The initial stability is a special case of the latter.
Initial stability
Righting Arm: A symmetric ship is inclined at a small angle
d. C.B has moved off the ships centerline as the result of the
inclination. The distance between the action of buoyancy and
weight, GZ, is called righting arm.

Transverse Metacenter: A vertical line through the C.B
intersects the original vertical centerline at point, M.
sin
if 1
Small angle inclination
5 0.087266
GZ GM d
GMd d
d
= u
~ u u
us =
Location of the Transverse Metacenter

Transverse metacentric height : the vertical distance
between the C.G. and M (GM). It is important as an
index of transverse stability at small angles of inclination.
GZ is positive, if the moment is righting moment. M
should be above C.G, if GZ >0.

If we know the location of M, we may find GM, and thus the
righting arm GZ or righting moment can be determined
given a small angle d.


Righting Moment =
GZ A
; the distance from C.B. to
( ) the distance from the baseline to .
,
where is the vertical coordinates of the C.B.
The vertical distance between the metacenter
x
M
x
M B
B
I
BM BM M
H KM M
I
KM = H = +Z
Z
=
V
V
.
& C.G,
x
M G B G
I
GM H Z +Z Z = =
V
Examples of
computing KM
d
B
3
2
2
3
2
2
) Rectangular cross section
1
, ,
2 12
12
12 2
) Triangular cross section
2 1 1
, ,
3 12 2
6
2
6 3
B x
x
B
B x
x
B
a
d
Z I LB LBd
I B
BM
d
B d
KM BM Z
d
b
d
Z I LB LBd
I B
BM
d
B d
KM BM Z
d
= = V =
= =
V
= + = +
= = V =
= =
V
= + = +
d
B
Ship Resistance (Drag )

A ship actually moves at the same time through two
fluids, water and air, with widely different density.
While the lower part of the hull is moving through
water, the upper part is moving through air. Because
, the air resistance is usually much smaller
than the water resistance, except for those aerostatic
support of hydrodynamic support crafts.

Summary: Water resistance (submerged part of a hull)
Air resistance (upper part of hull &
superstructure)
a w
<<
Types of Water Resistances
1. Wave-Making Resistance: Waves are generated on
the surface of water and spread away from a ship.
Waves possess energy. Thus a ship making waves
means a loss of its energy. Wave-making
resistance is important to surface ships, especially
those of high speeds.
2. Frictional Resistance: arising due to the viscosity
of water, i.e. tangential stresses. Because of
viscosity & velocity gradient in the direction normal
to the ship hull, there is a mass of fluid being
dragged along with a ship. Energy necessary to drag
the mass of fluid is the work done by the ship
against the frictional resistance.
3. Eddy-making Resistance: Due to the viscosity of the
fluid, the flow separates from the surface of a hull and
eddies (vortices) are formed. These eddies induce the
changes in the velocity field and thus change the
normal pressures on a hull. The changes in the
pressure field around a ship result in the eddy-making
resistance.

Air resistance (mainly resulting from wind resistance).
Appendage resistances: are caused by the appendages
of a ship, such as propellers, rudders and bilge keels.
R

N F R
T F R air app
R R R
R R R R R
= +
= + + +
Naked Ship esistance
Total
Computation of Frictional Resistance
( )
( )
8
10
7
2
10
Re /
(1947 ATTC line)
0.242
log Re , for Re 4.5 10 .

0.075
, for Re 10
log Re 2
F
F
F
LV
C
C
C
v =
= s
= >

Reynolds Number (non- dimensional)

Schoenherr formula
1957 ITTC line formula
2
.
1

2
F F
F V SC = Frictional Resistance
Influence of Roughness of a plate on C
F


The formulas for computing C
F
are applied to the flat plates with
smooth surface. The rough surface (of a ship) will result in the
increase of C
F
. Roughness (on the surface of a hull) may be
classified into 3 types.

1. Structural roughness: caused by welded joints, warviness of
shell plating on the hull. A newly-built ship will have
(for Schoenherr formula).
2. Corrosion
3. Fouling: caused by the attachment of marine organisms such as
seaweeds, shells and barnacles.
Corrosion & fouling occur for ships having sailed for a certain
period of time. They will decrease the velocity of the ship. Ship
owner will decide when the ship should go to the dock for cleaning.
0.0004
f
C A =
Wave-Making Resistance
Wave-making resistance is important to
1. a surface ship (negligible for submarine); &
2. its speed is high. Accurately speaking, its Froude # ,

or in U.S. the speed/length ratio, is high.
It is noticed that the speed to length ratio is a dimensional
coefficient, where V is in knots, L in feet.
A nautical mile/hr (knot) = 0.5144 m/s.
R
V
F
gL
=
V
L
6
2
R
1 is equivalent to 0.3
When 0.1, & is negligible.
When 0.45, , is dominant in .
1
R ( determined via model tests)
2
R
R W W
R W W T
W W
V
F
L
F C R
F C V R R
V SC C
= =
<
~
=
Ship Wave Pattern

Lord Kelvin (1887) considered a single pressure point traveling
in a straight line over the surface of the water, sending out
waves which combine to form a characteristic pattern.
Transverse Waves

Divergence Waves
Ship Wave Pattern

Kelvin wave pattern illustrates and explains many of the
features of ship waves. Ship wave pattern is similar to the
combination of two Kelvin wave systems generated by two
pressure points, with one near the bow and the other near the
stern.
Wave pattern of a ship
Wave pattern behind a moving duck
Wave Pattern of a small boat (divergence wave pattern)
Wave Pattern of a small boat (divergence wave pattern)
A Towing Carriage and A Ship Model
A Towing Carriage
Overview of MarinTeks Shop Model Tank (Norway)
Propulsive Devices

Paddle-Wheels: While the draft varying with ship displacement,
the immersion of wheels also varies. The wheels may come out
of water when the ship is rolling, causing erratic course-keeping,
& they are likely to damage from rough seas.

Propellers: Its first use was in a steam-driven boat at N.Y. in
1804. Advantages over paddle-wheels are,
1) not substantially affected by normal changes in draft;
2) not easily damaged;
3) decreasing the width of the ship, &
4) good efficiency driven by lighter engine.
Since then, propellers have dominated in use of marine
propulsion.
Paddle Wheels Propulsion (Stern)
Paddle Wheels Propulsion (Midship)
Propeller (5-blade)
Propeller (5-blade) & Rudder
Jet type: Water is drawn by a pump & delivered sternwards as a
jet at a high velocity. The reaction providing the thrust. Its use
has been restricted to special types of ships.

Other propulsion Devices:

1. Nozzles (Duct) Propellers: main purpose is to increase the
thrust at low ship speed (tug, large oil tanker)
2. Vertical-Axis Propellers: Advantage is to control the direction
of thrust. Therefore, the ship has good maneuverability.
3. Controllable-Pitch Propellers (CCP): The pitch of screw can
be changed so that it will satisfy all working conditions.
4. Tandem and Contra-rotating Propellers: It is used because
the diameter of a propeller is restricted due to limit of the draft
or other reasons (torpedo). The efficiency of the propeller
usually decreases.
Jet Propulsion
Nozzle Propellers
Vertical-Axis Propellers
Vertical-Axis Propellers
Controllable Pitch Propellers (CPP)
Contra-rotating Propellers
Type of Ship Machinery (Engine)

1. Steam Engine

2. Steam Turbine

3. Internal combustion engines (Diesel engine)

4. Gas Turbines

5. Nuclear reactors turbine
Engine (Brake) Power: Measured at right behind the
engine P
B

Delivered horsepower (P
D
): the power delivered to the
propeller.




Thrust horsepower (P
T
):




=
- Efficiency of the Propeller in open water
- Thrust delivered by the propeller
- Advancing velocity of the propeller
T D O A
O
A
P P T V
T
V
q
q
=
Efficiency of the shaft
transfer energy from the engine to the propeller
D B S S
P P q q =
Effective horsepower (P
E
, or EHP):
R
T
total resistance
V
s
advance velocity of ship
/ = =
- quasi-propulsive coefficient (efficiency)
- Hull coefficient (efficiency)
E T S
S T
E T H
A
E E T
D H R O H O
D T D
D
H
P R V
V R
P P
V T
P P P
P P P
q
q q q q q q
q
q
=

= = =
Propulsion Efficiency

Total propulsion efficiency
can also be replaced by or
A more meaningful measure of hydrodynamic performance
of a propeller is: a quasi-propulsive coefficient,
,
, where is the shaft
E
T S B I
S
D
E
D
D
D
S S
S
P
P P P
P
P
P
P
P
q
q
q
q q
=
=
= transmission efficiency
and thus, .
- 98% for ships with main engine aft
- 97% for ships with main engine amidship
- smaller if a gear box is used.
T D S
S
q q q
q
=