Solar Cells

a perspective
Vikram Kumar
Nanoscale Research Facility
Indian Institute of Technology
New Delhi
vkmr@physics.iitd.ac.in
090202
2
National Physical
Laboratory
NPL is the custodian of National Standards of Measurements in India
090202
3
R&D Divisions of NPL
Physico-Mechanical
Standards
Electrical & Electronic
Standards
NPL
Radio &
Atmospheric
Sciences
Cryogenics &
Superconductivity
Engineering
Materials
Electronic
Materials
Materials
Characterization
library, computing facilities,
internet, workshop,
glassblowing, electronic
instrumentation etc.
Employees 854
Scientists 197
Temp Scientists 212
Budget: ~ 20 M$
Papers in 2008 259
090202 4
Major Areas @ NPL
MEASUREMENT SCIENCE
STANDARDS, CALIBRATION, CHARACTERISATION
ENERGY
PHOTOVOLTAICS, POROUS CONDUCTING PAPER FOR FUEL
CELLS, WHITE LED FOR LIGHTING
SENSORS
MEMS, BIO, GAS, CONDUCTING POLYMERS
ENGINEERING MATERIALS
LIGHT METALS, CARBON COMPOSITES, CONDUCTING POLYMERS,
CERAMICS
NANO TECHNOLOGY
CARBON NANOTUBES, BULK NANO METALLIC TUBES,
NANOCRYSTALLINE DIAMOND THIN FILM, MPECVD, NANO-
SILICON CARBIDE, MESO POROUS OXIDE, NANO FERROFLUIDS,
NANOPHOSPHORS FOR LUMINESCENT DISPLAY
ENVIRONMENT
GHG, OZONE, NOX , FACE, CRM, ANTARCTICA
RADIO SCIENCE
IONOSPHERE, MOBILE COMM, OCEAN COMM

080523 6
Metrology
The science of
measurement -
METROLOGY - grew
along with the basic
physics.
Advances in science and
the development of high
technology industry
demand improved
accuracy in
measurements.
In many areas such as
dimensional metrology,
electrical measurements,
time and frequency,
optics, the need for
accuracy during the last
fifty years has increased
by a factor of 3 to 10
every decade.
This trend is actually
accelerating.
In time and frequency
standards, the basis for
space navigation, the need
for accurate time has
increased from 10
-13
sec to
10
-18
sec.
The need for improved
dimensional metrology is
obvious with increasing
miniaturization. As we go to
nanotechnology, we will
need even better
accuracies.
In oil and gas industry there
is tremendous need for
accurate measurement of
fluid flow. Even a small
error in few part per
thousand will make a
difference in millions of
dollars
080523 7
World Trade Organization
WTO is the international organization
dealing with the rules of global trade
between nations
Main purpose is to
ensure smooth flow of trade
predictable and as free as possible

As part of WTO agreement all signatory nations
are committed to remove all barriers including
technical barriers to trade (TBT)
This requires the existence of an internationally
recognized system of comparable and traceable
measurements
080523
8
080523 9
Mutual Recognition Arrangement
One of the well identified technical barrier to trade is in the field
of standards and precision measurements
The implementation of trade agreements under the WTO
requires the existence of an internationally recognized system of
comparable and traceable measurements
To remove this barrier, it has been decided that testing and
calibration certificates issued by National Metrology Institutes
(like NPL) should be accepted globally provided they meet
certain criteria
In October, 1999 a Mutual Recognition Arrangement (MRA) was
signed by 37 member countries.
Today there are 67 signatories of the MRA
CIPM MRA brought together the NMIs, the RMOs and the BIPM
The CIPM MRA is seen as one of the key element in
removing the Technical Barrier to Trade
sspl/nsd
Microwave Applications
Mobile Communication
systems
Cellular phones
Wireless LAN
Mobile satellite services
Radars
Missile guidance
Direct Broadcast Satellite (DBS)
TV Tuners
Collision Avoidance Radar

MONOLITHIC MICROWAVE INTEGRATED
CIRCUIT (MMIC)
GOLD Si
3
N
4
DIELECTRIC
RESISTOR
ION IMPLANTED
Fabricate MESFET with
passive elements to obtain
functional circuits
inductors, capacitors,
resistors, interconnects
via holes and airbridges
due to high frequency
operation
electromagnetic
interaction
parasitic capacitance
and inductance play
significant role in
performance
Circuit design and layout
12 GHz MMIC TECHNOLOGY

TECHNOLOGY FEATURES

EIGHT MASK PROCESS
ACTIVE DEVICE MESFET with 0.7 m gate
Gm = 120 -140 mS/ mm. Ft > 18 GHz.
PASSIVE DEVICES
SPIRAL INDUCTORS (0.3-13 nH)
NITRIDE & POLY CAPACITORS ( 0.1 - 20 pF )
MESA RESISTORS (Rsheet = 300 0hms/)
ION IMPLANTED MATERIAL
( N
+
/ N profile ) WITH RTA ANNEAL.
AuGe/Ni/Au OHMIC AND Ti/Pt/Au SCHOTTKY
CONTACTS.
2.5 um Pt/Au INTERCONNECT METALLISATION.
WET & DRY ETCH PROCESS.


Amplifier
Switch
Modelling & Design
Process modelling
Device modelling
Circuit modelling
Users requirements
Design manual
Materials
CVD
Schottky contacts
Ion implantation
Thermal annealing
Devices & measurements
I -V data
Contact & series resistance
Transconductance dispersion
S-parameters
Processing &
characterization
Sheet resistance
Electrical C-V
Electrochemical C-V
SEM
SIMS
Hall mobility
MMIC TECHNOLOGY DEVELOPMENT
A bit of History
1983 Technology mission to
learn the trends
1986 Position paper
1988 Special team to discuss
technology transfer
Plessey asked
technology fee Rs. 10 Cr.
SSPL decide : we can do
it
1989 Project sanctioned
Contract signed with SCL
for setting up and
operation
1996 GAETEC facility set up
1997 First MMIC fabricated
1998 Design Manual
released
2003 Turnover ~ 12 Cr

1992 2003 my involvement
GALLIUM ARSENIDE ENABLING
TECHNOLOGY CENTER (GAETEC)
Pilot production center for
GaAs MMICs
FACILITIES:
Class 10, 100, 1000 clean rooms
Lithography up to 0.5 m feature size
Ion implanter
Metallization & dielectric coater
Process characterization tools
Assembly & QC test setup
Design tools
TECHNOLOGY:
DEVELOPED at SSPL
G7A - 0.7micron Ion Implanted Recessed
Gate MESFETs up to 12 GHz
G5A - 0.5 micron Ion Implanted Recessed
Gate MESFETs up to 18 GHz
WAFER TRACK
MMIC AMPLIFIER
GAETEC Has a Modern Wafer Fabrication Facility
with Class 10, Class 100 Cleanrooms Housing
State- Of- Art Equipment
GAETEC FOUNDRY
Lift Off Processor



Photolithography Bay
Ion Implanter

Thermal, E-Beam And
sputtering System For
Deposition of Metal layers

Deposition Bay
Photoresist Processing System

Per capita Energy Consumption

16 TW

sana 2100 tk 30 TW kI AavaSyakta haogaI
23
Renewable energy sources
Sun delivers 10,000
times the energy
needed worldwide
090723 24
Depleting Supplies - Limited Resources
Pollution, Greenhouse Gases Global
Warming
Political & Economic Issues: Dependence
on Other Countries
Will become more expensive
Disposal: e.g., nuclear fuel is toxic and its disposal
is ongoing environmental issue for centuries,
disastrous in case of accident.
Less Efficient
Technical e.g., Transmission Loss
Year 2100:
CO
2
Level : 2.5-3.5x
Temp Rise: 1.4-5.4C
Fossil Fuels (meets 88% of the global energy demand)
38% Oil
26% Coal
24% Gas
Nuclear: 6.5%
Hydro: 2.2%
Climatically Challenged World



090723 26
Share of Energy

090723 28
Renewable Energy
Clean Source of Energy
Abundant Sources Do not get depleted
No Harmful Waste Products
Many types can be generated at the location of use no
transmission loss
No Greenhouse Gases
The photovoltaic energy conversion is
the most efficient process for utilizing
the solar energy requiring the least
number of conversion processes
090723 29
Some Facts..
Energy Demand:
Y2000: 410 EJ (Exa=10
18
)
Y2050: 840-1050 EJ
Y2100: 1460-1850 EJ
Possible Sources:
Biomass: 270 EJ, entire agriculture mass
Wind: 65 EJ, installations at all potential locations
Nuclear: 250 EJ, 8000 new plants
Hydro: 50 EJ, dams at all rivers.
E630 EJ
Over 1.5x10
22
J (15,000EJ) of solar energy reach on the
Earth everyday
Daily energy consumption of ~1.3EJ by human activity
Solar Energy:

Millions of Barrels per Day (Oil Equivalent)
300
200
100
0
1860 1900 1940 1980 2020 2060 2100
Source: John F. Bookout (President of Shell USA) ,Two Centuries of Fossil Fuel
Energy International Geological Congress, Washington DC; July 10,1985.
BaivaYya maoM Kdana K%ma hao jaayaoMgao. AiQaktma
saUrja sao hI laonaI haogaI
090723 31
A global problem




43

64

312

ko ilayao pOda kr
sakto hOM


37
Solar Energy Spectrum

vaalaI ~ 1000 W/m

2
tIna rasto






sabasao kma . hala maoM [saka
mah%va baZa hO
Energy Band Gap in Solids
Conduction in Semiconductors
Electrons and Holes

Semiconductors - n and p type
Impurities which can easily give up
one electron
P in Si
Impurities which can easily accept
an electron
B in Si
43
Silicon crystal lattice with dopant atoms
Semiconductors
Solar cells use semiconductor materials: Silicon, GaAs, CdTe,
CuInSe, amorphous Si
Semiconductors
n- type (doped with B, Al etc.) and
p- type (doped with P, As etc.)
Silicon has dopant atoms introduced to create a p-type and an n-type
region and thereby producing a p-n junction.
The doping can be done by high temperature diffusion, where the
wafers are placed in a furnace with the dopant introduced as a vapour
Semiconductor materials
Intrinsic Semiconductors
Perfect, no added impurities, no defects
Existence ?
Only thermally generated carriers
Extrinsic semiconductors
Impurities added to tailor the properties
Doping
Defects due to growth conditions
Additional Carriers from these external dopants
May be excess electrons n type
May be excess holes - p type
Cystalline
Non crystalline
IV: Si, Ge
III-V: GaAs, InP,
GaN
II-VI: CdTe, ZnO
45
PN-Junction Characteristics
Semiconductors
Photo-Voltaic = PV
47
15x10
-3
10
5
0
-5
C
u
r
r
e
n
t

d
e
n
s
i
t
y

(
A
/
c
m
2
)
1.2 0.8 0.4 0.0
Bias (V)
Superposition principle
I (V) = I
D
(V) - I
L
Current
I
Bias
V
Characteristic
under illumination
I
L
= I
D
(V) - I (V)
I
L
48
in
SC OC
in
mp
e
P
FF J V
P
P

= = q
Device characterization
Current
I
Bias
V
I
sc

V
oc

Characteristic
under illumination
FF
P
mp

P
in

I
SC
= 4.4 mA/cm
2
FF = 0.52
V
OC
= 840 mV
q
e
= 1.9 %
-4x10
-3
-2
0
2
4
C
u
r
r
e
n
t

d
e
n
s
i
t
y

(
A
/
c
m
2
)
1.0 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0.0
Bias (V)
-
101102
1. Light penetration depth
2. Generation of carriers in
neutral regions
3. Diffusion of minority carriers
4. Collection of carriers from
diffusion length
5. Majority carriers travel to
contacts
n
p
e
h
hv
Efficiency = Elec power out
Solar power in
Fill factor, series resistance
090723 50
Operation of a solar cell
t
b

S
b

ptype Si base
300 m
SiN
x
:H ARC
ntype Si emitter
Al back contact
Ag front contacts
h
+

h
+
e
-

e
-

e
-
e
-
h
+

h
+

e
-
e
-
e
-
e
-
Photons are absorbed in a semiconductor by generating
trillions of electron-hole pairs which need to live long enough by
avoiding recombination and get to the p-n junction, where they
are separated by an electric field and collected by contacts to
provide electricity to the load
e
-
e
-
e
-
1941
<1%
1954
6%
PESC
1985
20%
PERL 1998
24.7%
1974
17.2%
PCC
1988
22.3%
Progress in Crystalline Silicon Solar Cell
Efficiencies
52
Solar Photovoltaic Module
Stand Alone PV System
Water pumping
Grid-Tied PV System
090723 55
Components of Photovoltaic
Power
Solar Cells
Material Options : Silicon, Cadmium Telluride, Copper
Indium diSelenide, (Gallium indium phosphide-Gallium
Arsenide-Germanium)
Photovoltaic Modules
-- Glass, Tedlar, Encapsulant, Aluminium Frame,
Junction Box, Connector Cables.
Photovoltaic Systems
-- Battery, Power Conditioning Unit, Mounting
structure/Tracking device and Hardware

090723 56
Challenges & Efforts to meet them
1. Availability of solar cell materials to sustain the high
PV growth rate, (e.g. SoG-Si).
2. Improving efficiency industrial solar cells, (q>16
20 % ?)
3. Reliability of performance (degradation issue).
4. Novel high efficiency concentrator PV system or low
cost 1 sun solar cells & modules for < 1 USD/watt
modules.

Sunlight contains a spectrum of photons of
varying energy E
If E< band-gap, the photon is useless
(Sub band loss)
If E>band-gap, then the excess energy
becomes heat (Hot carrier loss)
Optical effects:
reflection loss
incomplete absorption loss (in the
range of 300nm 1100nm)
Collection efficiency loss

p - n 31%
Shockley Queisser Limit

Direct conversion of Sunlight into Electricity
Conventional Silicon Solar cells
Single and Polycrystalline Silicon
Commercial Efficiency ~ 16 %
Efficiency at Laboratory scale ~ 26%
Thin Film Solar Cells
a Si , CdTe, CIGS and thin film crystalline Si
Commercial Efficiency ~ 10 %
Efficiency at Laboratory scale ~ 16 %
Limitations
High Cost
Large Area Limitation
Less Flexibility
Search for cost
effective
alternatives
Nanocomposite/organic Solar
Organic Solar cells

Cross-sectional diagram of the structure of a
typical CdS|CdTe solar cell.
Peter L M Phil. Trans. R. Soc. A 2011;369:1840-1856
2011 by The Royal Society
Cross-sectional diagram of the structure of a
typical CIGS solar cell.
Peter L M Phil. Trans. R. Soc. A 2011;369:1840-1856
2011 by The Royal Society
Harry Atwater, Albert Polman
nature materials, 9, 205, 2010

Organic solar cells
Small molecules
(vacuum evaporation)
Conjugated Polymers
(spin process)
Organic/inorganic hybrid
(spin process)
69
Why Organic Photovoltaics
Solar energy demand has grown at
a rate of ~ 30% p.a. over the last
15 years
The global market for PV
installations estimated at 18 b
Currently the market is heavily
dependent on government
subsidies
Production facilities are >10x
cheaper than those for any
traditional PV technology
Low unit costs enable use
even for shorter lifecycles
New form factors
(semitransparent foil) allow
completely new applications
flexibility, weight, large area, low cost, tailored properties
Costs
Lifetime
Efficiency
Organic solar cells
DONOR
ACCEPTOR

O
MeO
n
MEH-PPV PCBM
090202 71
Distributed Heterojunction
G. Yu and A. J. Heeger: J. Appl. Phys. 78, 4510-5 (1995)
Mix electron acceptor and hole acceptor materials together
Distribute active interfaces throughout the bulk
All excitons are within a diffusion range of an interface
Exciton dissociation at the PPV/C60 interface
Electrons transferred to one component, holes to the other
Charges travel to respective electrodes
090202 72
bi-layer and bulk-heterojunction
(blend) organic solar cells
73
Small molecular PV Cells
S.No. V
oc
(V) J
sc
(mA/cm
2
) FF(%) q(%)
1. 0.50 6.51 51.5 2.09
-2 -1 0 1 2
-0.02
0.00
0.02
0.04
0.06
0.08
0.10
0.12


C
u
r
r
e
n
t

d
e
n
s
i
t
y

(
A
/
c
m
2
)
Voltage (V)
Illuminated
Dark
ZnPc
Device active area = 9.1 mm
2
ITO/ZnPc:C
60
/BPhen/Al
0.05
0.10
0.15
0.20
0.25
0.30
0.35
0.40
300 400 500 600 700 800


A
b
s
o
r
b
a
n
c
e

(
a
.
u
.
)
Wavelength (nm)
ZnPc
C60
Schematic diagram to
illustrate the
electrochemical and
electronic processes
taking place in a dye-
sensitized solar cell
under operating
conditions.
Peter L M Phil. Trans. R. Soc. A 2011;369:1840-1856
2011 by The Royal Society
dye-sensitized solar cell

Colloidal Particles
Engineer reactions to precipitate quantum dots from
solutions or a host material (e.g. polymer)
In some cases, need to cap the surface so the dot
remains chemically stable (i.e. bond other molecules on
the surface)
Can form core-shell structures
Typically group II-VI materials (e.g. CdS, CdSe)
Size variations ( size dispersion)
CdSe core with ZnS
shell QDs
Red: bigger dots!
Blue: smaller dots!
090202 79
Demonstration of Solar Cell.....
P3HT: PCBM
P3HT: CdSe: PCBM
Jsc = 6.32 x 10
-3
A/cm
2

Voc = 0.44 V

FF = 0.435

q = 1.23 %


Jsc = 8.88 x 10
-3
A/cm
2

Voc = 0.48 V

FF = 0.36

q = 1.91

%


ITO/ PEDOT:PSS/ P3HT:PCBM/ LiF/ Al
ITO/ PEDOT:PSS/ P3HT:CdSe:PCBM/ LiF/ Al
Reduction of barrier at active layer- acceptor interface
-0.25 0.00 0.25 0.50 0.75
-1.5x10
-2
-1.0x10
-2
-5.0x10
-3
0.0
5.0x10
-3
P3HT: PCBM
P3HT: CdSe: PCBM
J

(
A
/
c
m
2
)
V (Volts)
090202 80
Demonstration of Solar Cell.....
MEH-PPV:PCBM
MEH-
PPV:CdSe:PCBM
Jsc = 2.88 x 10
-3
A/cm
2

Voc = 0.37 V

FF = 0.46

q = 0.62 %


Jsc = 7.37 x 10
-3
A/cm
2

Voc = 0.41 V

FF = 0.40

q = 1.47

%


ITO/ PEDOT:PSS/ MEHPPV:PCBM/ LiF/ Al
ITO/ PEDOT:PSS/ MEHPPV:CdSe:PCBM/ LiF/ Al
-0.25 0.00 0.25 0.50
-1.00x10
-2
-7.50x10
-3
-5.00x10
-3
-2.50x10
-3
0.00
2.50x10
-3
5.00x10
-3
7.50x10
-3
1.00x10
-2
B
MEH-PPV: PCBM
MEH-PPV: CdSe: PCBM
J

(
A
/
c
m
2
)

V (Volts)
A
CdSe QDs have a range of electron affinities reported from 3.5-4.5 eV help
in matching energy levels
PCBM provides additional conducting path allowing significant
enhancement of electron transport at even low doping levels
090202 81

Polymer
Nanoparticles Voc
(V)
Jsc
(mA/cm
2
)
EQE PCE
(%)


References
OC
1
C
10
-PPV CdSe tetrapods 0.75 9.1 0.52 2.8
B. Sun et al., J Appl Phys
97 (2005) 014914
P3HT CdSe nanorods 0.62 8.79 0.70 2.6
B. Sun et al., Phys Chem Chem Phys 8
(2006) 3557
APFO-3 CdSe nanorods 0.95 7.23 0.44 2.4
P. Wang et al., Nano Lett 6 (2006) 1789
P3HT CdSe hbranch 0.60 7.10 2.2
I. Gur et al., Nano Lett
7 (2007) 40914
P3HT CdSe nanorods 0.70 6.07 0.56 1.7
W. U. Huynh et al., Science 295 (2002)
24257
MDMO-PPV ZnO 0.81 2.40 0.39 1.6
WJE Beek et al., Adv Mater 16 (2004)
100913
MEH-PPV CdSe tetrapods 0.69 2.86 0.46 1.13
Zhou Y, Nanotechnology
17 (2006) 40417
MDMO-PPV ZnO 1.14 2.30 0.26 1.1
WJE Beek et al., Adv Funct Mater 15
(2005) 17037
MEH-PPV CdSe
x
Te
1x

(CdSe
0.78
Te
0.22
)
0.69 1.57 0.49
Yi Zhou et. al., Nanotechnology 17
(2006) 40414047
MEH-PPV CdTe
nanocrystals
0.77 0.19 0.42
T. Shiga et al., Solar Energy Materials
& Solar Cells 90 (2006) 18491858
MEH-PPV PbS 1.00 0.13 0.21 0.70
AAR Watt et. al., J Phys
D: Appl Phys 38 (2005) 200612
P3HT

PbSe 0.35 1.08 0.14
D Cui et al., Appl Phys Lett
88 (2006) 183111
Hybrid Organic-Inorganic Solar Cells
Polymer: Inorganic Nanocomposites based Solar cells
Cost Effective
Efficient Electron Transport
Strong Optical Absorption
Efficient exciton dissociation
Prepared by Inexpensive Wet Chemical Synthesis
Possibility of Tailoring the Properties by varying the
size of the nanoparticles- quantum size effect
Nanoparticlepolymer cells generally have a photoactive
layer consisting of interconnected semiconducting
nanoparticles in a solid semiconducting polymer phase i.e.
interpenetrating phases of semiconducting polymers and
nanoparticles
-4
-3
-2
-1
0
-0.1 0.1 0.3 0.5 0.7 0.9
Voltage (V)
C
u
r
r
e
n
t

d
e
n
s
i
t
y

(
m
A
c
m
-
2
)
10% ANI-GS
5% ANI-GQD
3% ANI-GQD
1% ANI-GQD
P3HT
Al
5.1 eV
4.2 eV
h
+
e
-
4.7 eV
ITO
h v
3.2 eV
3.55 eV
5.38 eV
Figure band diagram of the OPV device
P3HT -ANI-GQDs 1%
V
OC
=0.61V, I
SC
= 3.51 mA/cm
2
, FF = 0.53, q = 1.14
Figure JV characteristics of the photovoltaic devices
Luminescent Graphene Quantum Dots (GQDs) for Organic Photovoltaics Devices
V. Gupta et al., Journal of American Chemical Society 133, 9960-9963 (2011).
-0.02
-0.015
-0.01
-0.005
0
0.005
0.01
-0.5 -0.3 -0.1 0.1 0.3 0.5 0.7 0.9
Voltage (V)
C
u
r
r
e
n
t

(
A
)
I
sc
= 13 mA
V
oc
= 0.799 V
FF = 0.591
q = 6.14
I
sc
= 15 mA
V
oc
= 0.825 V
FF = 0.454
q = 5.61
Modified PTB7-PCBM
Solar cell based on current polymers
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
2.5
3
300 400 500 600 700 800 900
Wavelength/ nm
I
n
t
e
n
s
i
t
y
/

a
.

u
.
1.69 eV 1.63 eV
PTB7
Modified PTB7
Poly[[4,8-bis[(2-ethylhexyl)oxy]benzo[1,2-b:4,5-
b']dithiophene-2,6-diyl]
[3-fluoro-2-[(2-ethylhexyl)carbonyl]thieno[3,4-
b]thiophenediyl]]
PTB7
PTB7/PC
60
BM eff. = 3.0

Mod. PTB7/PC
60
BM eff. = 5.6-6.2

Cost Effective
Efficient Electron Transport
Strong Optical Absorption
Efficient exciton dissociation
Prepared by Inexpensive Wet Chemical Synthesis
Possibility of Tailoring the Properties by varying the
size of the nanoparticles- quantum size effect
Breakdown of EPT for three PV technologies based on data given by Wild-Schoten [27].
Peter L M Phil. Trans. R. Soc. A 2011;369:1840-1856
2011 by The Royal Society
Energy payback time
From top to bottom for c-Si:
Si feedstock, Ingot + wafer,
cell, laminate, mounting and
cabling, inverter, recycling.

From bottom to top for CIGS
and CdTe: laminate,
mounting and cabling,
inverter, recycling.
090723 91
91
Current Manufacturers of
Silicon Feed Stock
2008(Actual)
(MT)
Hemlock, USA 15500
Wacker, Germany 11100
Tokuyama, Japan 5900
REC, USA 6100
Mitsubishi, Japan/USA 3400
MEMC, Italy/USA 5600
DC Chemicals 3100
Dow Corning 3000
M Setek 2500
GCL 1800
Others 12000
TOTAL 70000
090723 92
Technology Shares
Wafer based solar cells used to represent more then 90 % of the market until 2005.
Strong increase of thin shares (a-Si & CIS) in 2006-2007 because of silicon shortage.

2005-2008
Situation of hard
shortage with
investment and
development of
alternative PV
technologies
2010-2012
2
nd
situation of shortage alternative PV
technologies will again gain market shares
090723 93
Current Manufacturing Costs
9%
2%
7%
7%
8%
67%
Georgia Tech/GT Solar 25 MWp $1.98/Wp
Spire 25 MWp $1.78/Wp
Arthur D. Little 10 MWp $2.10/Wp
Haynes/Hill 10 MWp $1.92/Wp
Materials
Depreciation
Labor
Overhead
Interest
SG&A
090723 94
Economic Roadmap for Low-
Cost High-Efficiency Solar Cells
$0.79$0.91
$1.06
$1.20
$1.51
$1.56
$1.85
$1.98
$0.60
$0.80
$1.00
$1.20
$1.40
$1.60
$1.80
$2.00
$2.20
Current
cost
Slurry
recycle
325
200 m
wafers
$25
$20/kg
silicon
13.5%
17%
cells
Other
materials
cost
reductions
Scale-up
to
100500
MWp
M
a
n
u
f
a
c
t
u
r
i
n
g

C
o
s
t

(
p
e
r

W
p
)
Ajeet Rohatgi, Georgia Tech
090723 95
Projected module manufacturing cost
Expected decrease in the
thickness of silicon solar
cells
Improvement in Voc
with d/L due to BSF
effect
Occurrence in the Earths crust and current costs of some
of the elements relevant to thin-film photovoltaics.
Peter L M Phil. Trans. R. Soc. A 2011;369:1840-1856
2011 by The Royal Society
Annual production of some of the elements
relevant for photovoltaics.
Peter L M Phil. Trans. R. Soc. A 2011;369:1840-1856
2011 by The Royal Society
Wolden et al.: Photovoltaic manufacturing: Present status, J. Vac. Sci. Technol.
A, Vol. 29, No. 3, May/Jun 2011

These countries represent 98% of the world population
99.7% of worlds GDP and 99.2% of worlds CO2 emission
And 99.5% of residential electricity consumption
30%/yr Growth would lead to 250GW/yr in 2020

PV

Peter L M Phil. Trans. R. Soc. A 2011;369:1840-1856
2011 by The Royal Society
From bottom to top: China, USA, ROW, Japan, EU.
30 TW in 2100
sana 2100 maoM saarI haogaI
lagaBaga 1 TW vaaiYak ]%pad haogaa jaao ABaI ka 100 gaunaa
hO
[sako ilayao lagaBaga 10
12
va maI xao~ caaihyao (10
6

)

3,287,240
[sako ilayao bahut saamaga/I AaOr AavaSyak haOgaI
@yaa yah hao payaogaa



Excitonic PV Research
in India
National Physical Laboratory, New Delhi (~ 2.0%)
Jawaharlal Nehru Center for Advanced Scientific
Research, Bangalore (~2.0%)
Indian Institute of Technology, Kanpur (~1.8%)
Tata Institute of Fundamental Research, Bombay
Indian Institute of Technology, Delhi
University of Delhi, South Campus, Delhi
Jawaharlal Nehru University, Delhi

~ 1970
250 + maoM


hO
ka BaivaYya ]jvala hO



Water pumping SPV system installed in Punjab for irrigation
30 kW SPV Power Plant installed at Taj Mahal, Agra

100 kW diesel grid interactive SPV power plant
(Agatti island, Lakshdweep)
CEL, India, made SPV Plant for Lightening installed
at Eco-Habitats in Tyrona National Park, Columbia
Solar energy in use
Tracked PV Array containing 16 panels
The integration of PV cells into a building at the Thoreau
Center for Sustainable Development Image courtesy of NREL's
115
090723 117
Solar Power
Approx. 300 Sunny days
Average Daily Solar Energy Incidence 4-7 kWH/m
2
PV Contribution to total power generation: 2MW <<1%
per Capita Consumption: US ~21x India (2004-05)
Generation: 145 GW (10-14% Shortage).
2020 Requirement: 1200 GW
Indian Energy Scenario

I thank numerous persons who have
contributed to this presentation
090723 120
Important Elements for crystalline- Si
Solar Cell Design
090723 121
121
090723 122
2008 PV Shipment
International : ~5.95 GW
Indian : ~150 MW
Cumulative Installation
~18 GW: 1/1000th Energy Portfolio
Projected PV Production
2010 : 14 GW
2030: 140 GW
PV Production: Global & India
1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005
0
500
1000
1500
2000
2500
3000
3500
4000


A
n
n
u
a
l

P
V

P
r
o
d
u
c
t
i
o
n

(
M
W
)
Year
Compound Annual Growth 44%
2002-07
2006 2007-8 2008-9 2010
BP Solar 13 36 85-128
Webel 8 100*
Maharshi 5 15
CEL 3 12
BHEL 2 10
Maharshi * 8 15
Others 1
MBPV 80 200 750
Signet Solar 300
Solar Semiconductor 60 220
HHV 15
Future Investments
Signet Solar (3*300MW) -10yrs
Reliance and 10 more
US$ 5-6b Investment,
Special Incentive Package Scheme 18b
USD
090723 123
Solar Cell ~60%
Material ~40%
Mold: 5-10%
Processing ~20%
Modules
Systems
Installation, inverters, batteries
$3-$5 per peak watt
Experience Curve
10
-1
10
0
10
1
10
2
10
3
10
4
10
5
10
6
10
-1
10
0
10
1
10
2
Cumulative Production (MW
p
)
M
o
d
u
l
e

C
o
s
t

(
2
0
0
3

$
/
W
p
)
Extension of historic data 2003
beyond, ~30% growth
PV prices reduce by ~20% for every
doubling of cumulative volume.
Issue: PV Cost ?????
1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005
0
20
40
60
80
100


C
o
s
t

p
e
r

W
a
t
t

(
U
S
$
)
Year
Ref: 2007 USD
090723 124
The Gap .
1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005
8
10
12
14
16
18
20
22
24
26


E
f
f
i
c
i
e
n
c
y

(
%
)
Year
Lab
SunPower
Industry
Attainable Levels & Best Lab Efficiencies Lab & Industrial Efficiencies
How to bridge the gap between Lab & Industrial Solar Cell
090723 125
125
Year Cells Module
1999 9.5 17
2000 14 17
2001 20 20
2002 22 23
2003 25 36
2004 32 45
2005 37 65
2006 45 80
2007 110 135
2008 130 200
9.5
17
14
17
2020
22
23
25
36
32
45
37
65
45
80
110
135
130
200
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
180
200
P
R
O
D
U
C
T
I
O
N

(
M
W
p
)

1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008
YEAR
YEARWISE PRODUCTION OF SOLAR CELLS &
MODULE
Cells
Module
090723 126
126
WORLD PV CELL/MODULE PRODUCTION
(1991-2007 in MWp)
0
500
1000
1500
2000
2500
3000
3500
4000
4500
5000
5500
6000
6500
7000
7500
8000
Rest of World 5 4.6 4.4 5.6 6.35 9.75 9.4 18.7 20.5 23.42 32.62 47.8 83.8 141.5 322.5 714 1943 4188
Europe 13.4 16.4 16.55 21.7 20.1 18.8 30.4 33.5 40 60.66 86.38 112.8 193.4 311.8 476.6 678.3 1171 2020
Japan 19.9 18.8 16.7 16.5 16.4 21.2 35 49 80 128.6 171.2 251.1 363.9 601.5 833 926.9 932 1269
United States 17.1 18.1 22.44 25.64 34.75 38.85 51 53.7 60.8 74.97 100.3 100.6 103 138.7 154 201.6 233.1 431
Total 55.4 57.9 60.09 69.44 77.6 88.6 125.8 154.9 201.3 287.7 390.5 512.2 744.1 1194 1782 2521 4279 7910
1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008
From PV News, Photon International
090723 127
127
MOST MAJOR MANUFACTURERS ARE IN THE
PROCESS OF CAPACITY EXPANSION
Manufacturer Prodn in 2008 2009 (Planned)
(MWp) (MWp)
Q-Cells 581 800
First Solar 504 1000
Sun tech Power 497 800
Sharp 473 600
JA Solar 300 500
Kyocera 290 400
Yingli 281 550
Motech 272 415
Sun Power 237 450
Sanyo 215 300
Top Manufacturers of Silicon
Based PV Technology
090723 128
SANYO, Japan
Heterojunction with Intrinsic Thin-
layer (HIT)
BP Solar
Saturn Cell
Sun Power Corporation,USA
Cell with only back contact
Modified Approach for High Efficiency Solar Cells
(Eff. 18%-21%)
090723 129
090723 130
New Silicon Plants
090723 131
93% solar
cells use
silicon wafer
technology
090723 132
Thin film PV production capacity
090723 133
Amorphous Silicon Cell Employs a
p-i-n Design
090723 134
Metal Contact
n-layer (c-Si:H)
i-layer (cSi-H)
p-layer (cSi-H)
Interfacial Layer
n-layer (a-Si:H)
i-layer (a-Si:H)
p-layer (a-Si:H)
a-SiC:H (Window layer)
TCO
Glass
Proposed Solar Cell Structure
Light
c-Si:H by VHF-PECVD at
high growth rate
-crystalline thin film silicon
090723 135
Hetrojunction with Intrinsic Thin Layer
090723 136
Heterojunction with Intrinsic Thin Layer
(HIT) Solar Cells
Crystalline Si solar cell and HIT solar cell structure comparison
HIT solar cells improve boundary characteristics and reduce
power generation losses by forming impurity-free i-type a-Si
layers between the crystalline base and p- and n- type a-Si layers
090723 137
Spectrolabs Triple-Junction Solar Cells
090723 138
Nanostructured Solar Cells
090723 139
Nanostructured Solar Cells
090723 140
090723 141

Material system
J
SC

(mAcm
-2
)
V
OC
(V)
Fill
factor
(%)
Efficiency
Peak QE &
Wavelength
Si (monocrystalline) 42.2 0.706 82.8 24.5 0.5 >90%
Amorphous Silicon 19.4 0.887 0.74 12.7 ~90%
CdTe (cell) 25.9 0.845 75.5 16.5 0.5
GaInP/GaAs/Ge 14.4 2.622 85.0 32.0 1.5
GaInP/GaInAs/Ge (tandem) 16.0 2.392 81.9 31.3 1.5
DSSC > 10.0
Doped pentacene hetero-junction 7.7 0.90 0.66 4.5 -
Doped pentacene homojunction 5.3 0.97 0.47 2.4 36% at 650 nm
Cu phthalocyanine /C
60
bilayer
cell
13 0.53 0.52 3.6 18% at 620 nm
35% at 400 nm
MDMO-PPV /PCBM 5.25 0.82 0.61 2.5 50% at 470 nm
Dye sensitized solar cell with
OMeTDA hole conductor
5 0.90 0.56 2.56 38% at 520 nm


Current status of various solar cells

090723 142
Best cell efficiencies
090723 144
PV Scenario in India
~100 MW production largest is Tata BP
Solar with about 25 MW
Expansion plans for all in the range of 20
to 40 MW
New players Moser Baer PV to go up to
400 MW in 5 years. MBPV investing in a-
Si plant
090723 145
R&D on Photovoltaics at NPL
Crystalline Silicon: c- & mc-Si Cells (High q & Industrial) q>16%
Amorphous Silicon: a-Si:H and tandem cells, q~10%, 1cm
2
Polymer Solar Cells: Conjugated Polymers, q~2%, 10mm
2

Material Related R&D
mc-Silicon Ingot Growth Technology (US Patent)
PolySi TCS Route on Si Filament
Bulk SiGe (TEG)
Diagnostic Tools & Equipment for Solar Cells
Knowledge Based Service & Industrial Collaboration
Mechanical Load Tester
Reusable Split Mold
PSi ARC, 1978
Graphite: ~1.65 gm/cm
3
090723 146
Crystalline Si cells:
1. Thin c-Si & mc-Si cells with BSF.
2. Studies on maximising light trapping, estimating and reducing
surface and bulk surface recombination losses, and, resistive
losses in c-Si and mc-Si cells.
Thin film Silicon cells:
System for high rate deposition of a-Si, c-Si films for solar cells.
Polymer and nano-structured cells:
Synthesis and characterisation of poly-octyle thiophenes and
functionalized CNT and nano-particles for application in solar
cells.
Current PV R& D at NPL
8 Registered PhD Students currently
working in PV related areas
090723 147
Summary
The PV Scenario around the world is likely
to be dominated by bulk Si technology with
con tinuous improvements
Thin Si film technologies will gain.
New structures based polymers and
nanostructures need a breakthrough
NPL will increase the solar energy efforts
in coming years
Remote lighting systems
Heat Receiver Coil
Mirrors
Optical System
Shading Blocking
Mirrors
Shading & Blocking
Solar Concentrator Optics
Earlier Foreign
Solar Dish Prototypes
44 kW - USA
SBP, Saudi Arabia MDAC,USA
16 kW, SWIZ
60 kW, Swiz
Cummins, USA
A view of 10 kW (thermal) prototype of solar dish concentrator
developed at CSMCRI, Bhavnagar during 2001-2003
090723 152

Thank you
Thank you for your attention