Respiratory System

Provides a means of acquiring oxygen and eliminating carbon dioxide Includes mouth, nose, trachea or windpipe, bronchi and lungs Physical processes (mechanics of breathing) Chemical processes (exchange of gases)

Functions of Respiratory Organs

Provides max surface area for diffusion of Oxygen and Carbondioxide Ventilation Protects surface membranes from harsh environmental factors Counteracts sudden shifts in pH of the body and body fluids

Internal Respiration
Exchange of gas between the bloodstream and nearby cells Blood gives up 5 to 7 Vol % of O2 and absorbs 4 to 6 Vol % CO2 95% of O2 is carried by RBC hemoglobin RBC can carry only 30% CO2 Arterial blood is 100% oxygenated Venous blood is 75% oxygenated

External Respiration
Exchange of gas between the lungs and the bloodstream Includes inspiration and expiration Inspiration is intake of air (79% N2 20.96%O2 and 0.04%CO2) Expiration is exhaust of waste gases (79% N2 17%O2 and 4%CO2)

Organs of Respiration
Conducting division (no gas exchange to capillaries) includes nasal cavities, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi and bronchioles Respiratory division (permitting gas exchange to blood capillaries) includes respiratory bronchioles, alveolar ducts, atria (space from which the alveoli of the sacs arise) and alveolar sacs

Lungs
Consists of two cone shaped spongy organs that contain the alveoli Alveoli is one cell thick and allow exchange of gases to blood capillaries Alveoli or air sacs are 0.2mm in diameter Each lung contains 300 million alveoli Total lung capacity is 3.6 to 9.4 litres in adult men and 2.5 to 6.9 litres in adult women

Mechanics of Breathing
The two sets of muscles involved in the change in volume of the thoracic cavity are the diaphragm and the intercostal muscles Inspiration pressure reduction of 3mm Hg Expiration higher pressure of 3mm Hg

Parameters of respiration
measurements that indicate the state of the respiratory function, including lung volumes and capacities airway resistance lung compliance elasticity intrathoracic pressure

Lung Volumes and Capacities

Parameters of Respiration
Dead space - volume of air that is not available for gas exchange with the blood is known as dead air and the space that it fills is called the dead space Total Lung Capacity TLC 6000ml Amount of gas contained in the lungs at the end of maximal inspiration TLC = IC + FRC Residual Volume RV 1200ml amount of gas remaining in the lungs at the end of maximal expiration Tidal Volume TV 500ml Volume of gas inspired or expired during each respiratory cycle

Parameters of Respiration Contd

Inspiratory Capacity IC 3600ml max amount of gas that can be inspired from the resting expiratory level IC = TV + IRV Functional Residual Capacity FRC amount of gas remaining in the lungs at the resting expiratory level FRC = ERV + RV Inspiratory Reserve Volume IRV 3600ml max amount of gas that can be inspired from the end inspiratory position Expiratory reserve Volume ERV 1200ml max amount of gas that can be expired from the end expiratory level

Parameters of Respiration Contd

Airway Resistance - ease with which air flows through the tubular respiratory structures Lung Compliance ability of the alveoli and lung tissue to expand on inspiration Lung elasticity ability of the elastic tissues of the lungs to return to their rest state Intrathoracic Pressure positive and negative pressure occurring within the thoracic cavity

Regulation of Respiration
Respiration rate and depth are controlled by The nervous system The chemical concentration of CO2 in the blood

Unbalanced states of the Respiratory System

Hyperventilation alveolar ventilation in excess of metabolic needs for CO2 removal. PCO2 in blood falls below 40mm Hg caused be deep breathing Hypoventilation alveolar ventilation inadequate for CO2 removal. PCO2 in blood rises above 40mm Hg caused by shallow breathing

Diseased states of Respiratory system

Hypoxia low oxygen content in blood results from damage to respiratory neurons, alveolar damage, respiratory tissue damage or inadequate oxygen transport Apnea temporary cessation of breathing results from reduced stimulus to respiratory centers or brain center damage Hyperpnea increased TV reduces alveolar and blood PO2 Dyspnea labored breathing due to acidosis (low blood pH), pneumonia, cardiac failure, hemorrhage or fever Polypnea (tachypnea) accelerated breathing due to fever or hypoxia Hypercapnia decresed ventilation due to low PCO2 in the blood

Environmental threats to the Respiratory System

Lung tissue damage occurs due to Smoking cigarettes and inhaling gases Fibers and liquids from occupational environments Smoke and dust embeds within lung surfaces and causes insufficient oxygenation

Spirometers
At rest, the bell has a fixed volume When patient exhales, pressure inside bell increases, and it rises When patient inhales, pressure inside bell decreases, and it drops Volume changes are recorded on a chart recorder called Kymograph

Function of Kidneys
Kidneys remove the waste products from blood plasma Regulates the composition of blood plasma In addition to this, they organize the level of water in the body, they formulate the hormones, which assist the cadaver to manage the blood pressure, they establish the blood cells and keeps the functions of bones core alive so as to sustain the vigorous bones.