Production System Design

Introduction to Industrial Engineering
PRODUCTION SYSTEM DESIGN
Outline
Product Design
Product life cycle Product Development and Concurrent Engineering Issues for Product Development
Facility design
Layout Types Layout Design
Job design and Work Measurement

Work Measurement Specialization vs. Job Enrichment
PRODUCT
Anything that can be offered to a market to satisfy a want or need (Kotler) Products that are marketed include physical goods, services, experiences, events, persons, places, organizations, information, and ideas.
Goods and Services

Most Goods contain a Service, and Most Services Contain a Good
Goods Services
Automobile Computer Installed Carpeting Fast-food meal Restaurant meal/auto repair Hospital Care
Advertising Agency / Investment Management Consulting Services / Teaching
Counseling
100% 75 25 0 25 75 100%
(Heizer and Render, Operations Management)
Assessing the Need for Industrial Design

Expenditure for Industrial Design How important is Industrial Design to a product ?
Ergonomic Needs (all aspects of a product that relate to its human interfaces) Aesthetics
Ergonomic Needs
How important is ease of use ? Ease of use may important for frequently used and infrequently used product Multiple features and/or modes of operation How important is ease of maintenance ? (printers paper jam) How many user interactions are required for the products function ? (doorknob-portable computer) How novel are the user interaction needs? What are the safety issues ? (childs toy)
Product Life Cycles

May be any length from a few hours (a newspaper), months (cell phones), years (TV sets), to decades (Wolgswagen Beetle)
A products life is divided into four phases:1. Introduction, 2. Growth, 3. Maturity, 4. Decline The following figure shows how these four stages are linked to product sales, cash flow and cost.
Product Life Cycles

Introduction A period of slow sales growth as the product is introducedMaturity A slowdown in sales growth because the in the market. Profits are nonexistent because of the heavy achieved acceptance by most potential product has expenses of product Growth A period of buyers. drifts acceptance decline because of increased rapid market stabilize or introduction. Decline Sales show a downward Profitsand profits and substantial profit improvement. erode. competiton.
Products are born. They live and die. (Heizer and Render)
Product Development Stages

Ideas
Ability Customer Requirements Functional Specifications Scope of product development team
Product Specifications
Design Review Test Market
Scope for design and engineering teams
Introduction Evaluation
Concurrent Engineering
The simplest definition of Concurrent Engineering (CE) is the simultaneous development of product and process Concurrent engineering is a systematic approach to the integrated, concurrent design of products and their related processes, including manufacturing and support. This approach is intended to cause developers, from the outset, to consider all elements of the product life cycle from conception through disposal, including quality, cost, schedule and user requirements." (IDA)
There are three primary reasons that caused the design process to evolve into a concurrent process:
1. Rapid Pace Of Technology 2. Forced Design Cycle Compression 3. Emerging Information Technology And Methodologies
2. Forced Design Cycle Compression Product inputs from other functions that might cause a slip in the design schedule were often ignored. Thus, as marketers learned more about the customers' needs and expectations, and manufacturing engineers learned more about the cost to produce the product and manufacturability issues, few of their recommendations could be incorporated into the design under development.
3.Emerging Information Technology And Methodologies The information technology and the structured methodology foundation required to reshape the development process into a concurrent engineering process was emerging
QFD House of Quality

Customer importance ratings Interrelationships How to satisfy customer wants
What the customer wants
Relationship matrix
Target values Technical evaluation
Competitive assessment
Weighted rating
Design for Manufacturability and Value Engineering

Besides providing cost reduction, design for manufacturability and value engineering activities reduce complexity of products, improve functional aspects of product, improve maintainability (serviceability) of the product. In summary, manufacturability and value engineering activities may be the best cost avoidance technique available to OM. They yield value improvement by focusing on achieving the functional specifications necessary to meet customer requirements in an optimal way.
Issues for Product Development

Robust design Modular design Computer-aided design (CAD) Computer-aided manufacturing (CAM) Virtual reality technology Value analysis Environmentally friendly design
Robust Design
Product is designed so that small variations in production or assembly do not adversely affect the product
Typically results in lower cost and higher quality
Modular Design
Modular design allows subdividing the parts of a product into modules that are easily interchanged or replaced. (example is Harley Davidson) Adds flexibility to both production and marketing Improved ability to satisfy customer requirements
Computer Aided Design (CAD)

Using computers to design products and prepare engineering documentation Shorter development cycles, improved accuracy, lower cost Supports mass customization
CAD supports Mass Customization

CAD systems moved to the internet through e-commerce - customers enter suppliers design libraries, make changes - suppliers software automatically prepares new design specifications for the producer MASS CUSTOMIZATION
Extensions of CAD
Design for Manufacturing and Assembly (DFMA) Software
Solve manufacturing problems during the design stage
3-D Object Modeling

Small prototype development
Computer-Aided Manufacturing (CAM)

Utilizing specialized computers and program to control manufacturing equipment Often driven by the CAD system (CAD/CAM)
Benefits of CAD/CAM
1. Better quality (Through CAD/CAM more alternatives can be searched for) 2. Shorter design time ( Faster entrance to the market) 3. Production cost reductions 4. Database availability 5. New range of capabilities (3D modeling improves design, CAD/CAM enables using CNC machines)
Guidelines for Environmentally Friendly Designs

1. Make products recyclable 2. Use recycled materials 3. Use less harmful ingredients (Using soy-based inks) 4. Use lighter components 5. Use less energy 6. Use less material
Documents for Production

Assembly drawing Assembly chart Route sheet Work order Engineering change notices (ECNs)
Assembly Drawing
Shows exploded view of product Details relative locations to show how to assemble the product
Figure 5.11 (a)
Assembly Chart
1
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 R 209 Angle R 207 Angle Bolts w/nuts (2) SA 1 Left bracket assembly A1
R 209 Angle
R 207 Angle Bolts w/nuts (2) Bolt w/nut R 404 Roller A3 Poka-yoke inspection A4 A5 SA 2 Right bracket assembly A2
Identifies the point of production where components flow into subassemblies and ultimately into the final product
Lock washer
Part number tag Box w/packing material
Figure 5.11 (b)
Route Sheet
Lists the operations and times required to produce a component
Process
1 Setup Time 1.5 Operation Time/Unit .4
Machine
Auto Insert 2
Operations
Insert Component Set 56 Insert Component Set 12C Solder all components to board Circuit integrity test 4GY
2
3
Manual Insert 1 Wave Solder Test 4
.5
1.5
2.3
4.1
.25
.5
Work Order
Instructions to produce a given quantity of a particular item, usually to a schedule
Work Order Item 157C Production Dept Quantity 125 Start Date 5/2/08 Delivery Location Due Date 5/4/08
F32
Dept K11
Types of Layout
1. Office layout
2. Retail layout
3. Warehouse layout
4. Fixed-position layout 5. Process-oriented layout 6. Work-cell layout 7. Product-oriented layout
1. Office Layout
Grouping of workers, their equipment, and spaces to provide comfort, safety, and movement of information Movement of information is main distinction Typically in state of flux due to frequent technological changes
2011 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Prentice Hall
Relationship Chart: A tool to use in Office Layout Decisions
Figure 9.1
2. Retail Layout
Retail layouts (as are found in stores, banks, and restaurants) are based on the idea that sales and profitability vary directly with customer exposure to products Objective is to maximize profitability per square foot of floor space by exposing the customers to as many products as possible Sales and profitability vary directly with customer exposure
Five Helpful Ideas for Supermarket Layout

1. Locate high-draw items (dairy products, meat, etc.) around the periphery of the store
2. Use prominent locations for high-impulse and high-margin items

3. Distribute power items to both sides of an aisle and disperse them to increase viewing of other items 4. Use end-aisle locations
5. Convey mission of store through careful positioning of lead-off department

Store Layout
Figure 9.2
Retail Slotting
Manufacturers pay fees to retailers to get the retailers to display (slot) their product Contributing factors Limited shelf space An increasing number of new products
Retailers can demand up to $25000 to provide shelf space for a new product
Small companies complain about unfair competition Wal-Mart is one of the few major retailers that does not demand slotting fees.
Retail Store Shelf Space, Planogram (computer generated, plan for displaying merchandise, on the shelves of a supermarket)
Computerized tool for shelf-space management Generated from stores scanner data on sales
5 facings
Shampoo
Conditioner
Shampoo
Conditioner
Shampoo
Shampoo
Shampoo Conditioner
Shampoo
Shampoo
Shampoo
Shampoo
Often supplied by manufacturer
2 ft.
Servicescapes
The physical surroundings in which a service takes place, and how they affect customers and employees
1. Ambient conditions - background characteristics such as lighting, sound, smell, and temperature 2. Spatial layout and functionality - which involve customer circulation path planning, aisle characteristics, and product grouping 3. Signs, symbols, and artifacts - characteristics of building design that carry social significance
3. Warehousing and Storage Layouts

Objective is to optimize trade-offs between handling costs and costs associated with warehouse space Maximize the total cube of the warehouse utilize its full volume while maintaining low material handling costs
Warehousing and Storage Layouts

Material Handling Costs
All costs associated with the transaction
Incoming transport Storage Finding and moving material Outgoing transport Equipment, people, material, supervision, insurance, depreciation
Minimize damage and spoilage
Warehousing and Storage Layouts

Automated Storage and Retrieval Systems (ASRSs) can significantly improve warehouse productivity. Random stocking: Typically requires automatic identification systems (AISs) and effective information systems. Allows more efficient use of space
Dedicated Stocking
Cross-Docking
Materials are moved directly from receiving to shipping and are not placed in storage in the warehouse Requires tight scheduling and accurate shipments, bar code or RFID identification used for advanced shipment notification as materials are unloaded
Customizing
Value-added activities performed at the warehouse (warehouse assembly jobs are common nowadays) Enable low cost and rapid response strategies
Assembly of components
Loading software Repairs
Customized labeling and packaging

Warehouse Layout
Traditional Layout
Storage racks
Customization
Conveyor
Staging Shipping and receiving docks Office
Warehouse Layout
Cross-Docking Layout
Shipping and receiving docks
Shipping and receiving docks
Office
4. Fixed-Position Layout
Product remains in one place, workers and equipment come to site Preferred where the size of the job is bulky and heavy. Example of such type of layout is locomotives, ships, wagon building, aircraft manufacturing, etc. Complicating factors
Limited space at site

Different materials required at different stages of the project Volume of materials needed is dynamic
5. Process-Oriented Layout
Similar machines and equipment are grouped together Flexible and capable of handling a wide variety of products or services Scheduling can be difficult and setup, material handling, and labor costs can be high
Process-Oriented Layout
Patient A - broken leg ER triage room Emergency room admissions Patient B - erratic heart pacemaker
Surgery
Laboratories
Radiology
ER Beds
Pharmacy
Billing/exit
Figure 9.3
Layout at Arnold Palmer Hospital

Central break and medical supply rooms Local linen supply Pie-shaped rooms
Central nurses station
Local nursing pod
Manufacturing Process Layout

Lathe Department Milling Department Drilling Department
L L L L L
L L L L L
G G
G G
Grinding Department Receiving and Shipping
G G
P P
Painting Department
A
Assembly
Arrange work centers so as to minimize the costs of material handling
Basic cost elements are
Number of loads (or people) moving between centers Distance loads (or people) move between centers
Minimize cost = Xij Cij
i=1 j=1
n n
where
n = i, j = Xij = Cij =
total number of work centers or departments individual departments number of loads moved from department i to department j cost to move a load between department i and department j
Process Layout Example

Arrange six departments in a factory to minimize the material handling costs. Each department is 20 x 20 feet and the building is 60 feet long and 40 feet wide.
1.
2. 3. 4.
Construct a from-to matrix

Determine the space requirements Develop an initial schematic diagram Determine the cost of this layout
5.
6.
Try to improve the layout

Prepare a detailed plan

Number of loads per week
Department Assembly (1) Painting (2) Machine Shop (3) Receiving (4) Shipping (5) Testing (6) Assembly (1) Painting (2) Machine Shop (3) Receiving (4) Shipping (5) Testing (6)
50
100 30
0 50 20
0 10 0 50
20 0 100 0 0
Figure 9.4

Area 1 Area 2 Area 3 Assembly Department (1) Painting Department (2) Machine Shop Department (3) 40 Receiving Department (4) Shipping Department (5) Testing Department (6)
Figure 9.5
Area 4
Area 5 60
Area 6

Interdepartmental Flow Graph
100
Assembly (1)
50
Painting (2)
30
Machine Shop (3)
10
100
Receiving (4)
50
Shipping (5)
Testing (6)
Figure 9.6

The cost of moving one load between adjacent departments is estimated to be $1. Moving a load between nonadjecent departments costs $2.

Cost = Xij Cij
i=1 j=1 n n
Cost
$50 (1 and 2)
$200 (1 and 3)
$40 (1 and 6)
+
+
$30 (2 and 3)
$40 (3 and 4)
+
+
$50 (2 and 4)
$100 (3 and 6)
+
+
$10 (2 and 5)
$50 (4 and 5)
= $570

Revised Interdepartmental Flow Graph
30
Painting (2)
50
Assembly (1)
100
Machine Shop (3)
50
100
Receiving (4)
50
Shipping (5)
Testing (6)
Figure 9.7

Cost = Xij Cij
i=1 j=1 n n
Cost
$50 (1 and 2)
$100 (1 and 3)
$20 (1 and 6)
+
+
$60 (2 and 3)
$40 (3 and 4)
+
+
$50 (2 and 4)
$100 (3 and 6)
+
+
$10 (2 and 5)
$50 (4 and 5)
= $480

Area 1 Area 2 Area 3 Painting Department (2) Assembly Department (1) Machine Shop Department (3) 40 Receiving Department (4) Shipping Department (5) Testing Department (6)
Figure 9.8
Area 4
Area 5 60
Area 6
Computer Software
Graphical approach only works for small problems
Computer programs are available to solve bigger problems

CRAFT
ALDEP
CORELAP Factory Flow
CRAFT Example
A A A A A A A A B B B B
D
D D C A A
D
D D C A A
D
D D D A A
D
D E E A F
B
B E E A F
B
B E F F F
D
C F E
D
C F E
D
D F E
D
D F E
D
D F E
D
D D D
TOTAL COST 20,100 EST. COST REDUCTION ITERATION 0
.00
TOTAL COST 14,390 EST. COST REDUCTION ITERATION 3
70
(a)
(b)
Figure 9.9
Computer Software
Three dimensional visualization software allows managers to view possible layouts and assess process, material handling, efficiency, and safety issues
6. Work Cells
Reorganizes people and machines into groups to focus on single products or product groups (PART FAMILIES) Group technology identifies products that have similar characteristics for particular cells Similarity can be either in shape, size or in manufacturing process Volume must justify cells Cells can be reconfigured as designs or volume changes
Part families
Part families with similarity in manufacturing process Part families with similarity in shape
Original Process Layout
Assembly
5 2 1 3 10
8
12 11
Raw materials
Part Routing Matrix

Machines 4 5 6 x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x
Parts A B C D E F G H
1 x
2 x
8 x
10 x
11 x
12 x
x
x x x x x
x
x x
Figure 5.8
Reordered Routing Matrix

Machines 8 10 3 x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x
Parts A D F C G B H E
1 x x x
2 x x
4 x x x
11
12
x x x x
Revised Cellular Layout
Assembly 8 10 9 12
11
4 Cell 1 Cell 2 6 Cell 3 7 2 1 3 5
A B C Raw materials
Automated Manufacturing Cell
Source: J. T. Black, Cellular Manufacturing Systems Reduce Setup Time, Make Small Lot Production Economical. Industrial Engineering (November 1983)
Advantages of Work Cells

1. Reduced work-in-process inventory
2. Less floor space required

3. Reduced raw material and finished goods inventory 4. Reduced direct labor, and setup cost 5. Heightened sense of employee participation
6. Increased use of equipment and machinery

7. Reduced investment in machinery and 2011 Pearson Education, equipment
Inc. publishing as Prentice Hall
Requirements of Work Cells

1. Identification of part families
2. A high level of training, flexibility and empowerment of employees

3. Being self-contained, with its own equipment and resources 4. Test (poka-yoke: method used to prevent errors) at each station in the cell
Improving Layouts Using Work Cells
Current layout - workers in small closed areas. Improved layout - cross-trained workers can assist each other. May be able to add a third worker as additional output is needed. Figure 9.10 (a)
Improving Layouts Using Work Cells
Current layout - straight lines make it hard to balance tasks because work may not be divided evenly
Improved layout - in U shape, workers have better access. Four cross-trained workers were reduced.
U-shaped line may reduce employee movement and space requirements while enhancing communication, reducing the number of workers, and facilitating inspection
Figure 9.10 (b)
Process Flows before the Use of GT Cells
Process Flows after the Use of GT Cells
Staffing and Balancing Work Cells

Determine the takt time (Also called cycle time)
Takt time = Total work time available per day Required output per day (in units)
Determine the number of operators required

Workers required = Total operation time required Takt time
Staffing Work Cells Example

Require output: 600 Mirrors per Total work time: 8 hours per day Total operation time per mirror =140 seconds Takt time? # of workers required?
60 50 Standard time required 40 30 20 10 0
Assemble
Paint
Test
Label
Operations
Pack for shipment
Staffing Work Cells Example

600 Mirrors per day required Mirror production scheduled for 8 hours per day From a work balance chart total operation time = 140 seconds
Takt time
= (8 hrs x 60 mins) / 600 units = .8 mins = 48 seconds Total operation time required Takt time = 140 / 48 = 2.91
Workers required =
Work Balance Charts

Used for evaluating operation times in work cells Can help identify bottleneck operations Flexible, cross-trained employees can help address labor bottlenecks Machine bottlenecks may require other approaches
Focused Work Center and Focused Factory

Focused Work Center
When a firm identifies a large family of similar products that have a large and stable demand It moves production from a general-purpose, process-oriented facility to a large work cell
Focused Factory
A focused work cell in a separate facility May be focused by product line, layout, quality, new product introduction, flexibility, or other requirements
7. Repetitive and ProductOriented Layout

Organized around products or families of similar high-volume, low-variety products
1. 2. 3. 4. Volume is adequate for high equipment utilization Product demand is stable enough to justify high investment in specialized equipment Product is standardized or approaching a phase of life cycle that justifies investment Supplies of raw materials and components are adequate and of uniform quality
Product-Oriented Layouts
Fabrication line Builds components on a series of machines Machine-paced Require mechanical or engineering changes to balance Puts fabricated parts together at a series of workstations Paced by work tasks Balanced by moving tasks
Assembly line
Both types of lines must be balanced so that the time to perform the work at each station is the same
Product-Oriented Layouts
Advantages
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Low variable cost per unit Low material handling costs Reduced work-in-process inventories Easier training and supervision Rapid throughput
Disadvantages
1. 2. 3. High production volume is required to be justifiable Work stoppage at any point ties up the whole operation Lack of flexibility in product or production rates
Production/Assembly Line
Raw materials or customer Materials and/or labor
Station 1 Materials and/or labor
Station 2
Materials and/or labor
Station 3
Materials and/or labor
Station 4
Finished item
Used for Repetitive or Continuous Processing Example: automobile assembly lines, cafeteria serving line
U-Shaped Production Line
In
4 5
Workers
6
Out
10
McDonalds Assembly Line
Figure 9.12
Disassembly Lines
Disassembly is being considered in new product designs Green issues and recycling standards are important consideration Automotive disassembly is the 16th largest industry in the US
Assembly-Line Balancing
As mentioned earlier, objective is to minimize the imbalance between machines or personnel while meeting required output Starts with the precedence relationships
Determine cycle time Calculate theoretical minimum number of workstations Balance the line by assigning specific tasks to workstations
Design Product Layouts: Line Balancing

Line Balancing is the process of assigning tasks to workstations in such a way that the workstations have approximately equal time requirements.
Tasks are grouped into manageable bundles and assigned to workstations with one or two operators Goal is to minimize idle time along the line, which leads to high utilization of labor and equipment Perfect balance is often impossible to achieve
Steps in Assembly Line Balancing

Step 1: Identify tasks & immediate predecessors Step 2: Determine the desired output rate Step 3: Calculate the cycle time Step 4: Compute the theoretical minimum number of workstations Step 5: Assign tasks to workstations (balance the line) by using line-balancing heuristics Step 6: Compute efficiency.
Cycle Time
Cycle time is the maximum time allowed at each workstation to complete its set of tasks on a unit.
Example 1: Cycle Times

0.1 min. 0.7 min. 1.0 min. 0.5 min. 0.2 min.
With 5 workstations, CT =
1.0 minute.
Cycle time of a system = longest processing time in a workstation.
Example 1: Cycle Times

0.1 min. 0.7 min. 1.0 min. 0.5 min. 0.2 min.
With 1 workstation, CT =
2.5 minutes.
Cycle time of workstation = total processing time in of tasks.

With 3 workstations, can CT = 1.0 minute?
0.1 min.
0.7 min.
1.0 min.
0.5 min.
0.2 min.
Workstation 1
Workstation 2
Workstation 3
6A-96
What is Job Design

Job design is the function of specifying the work activities of an individual or group in an organizational setting The objective of job design is to develop jobs that meet the requirements of the organization and its technology and that satisfy the jobholders personal and individual requirements
Assembly Line Design

Diketahui precedence diagram berikut:
3 2 5 1 3 4 4 3 5 6 2 7 1 9 4 10 4 11 6 8 7 12
6 5
Job Design
Why job design? Organizing work content in a best way to improve labor productivityconsideration of human factors. Classical approach: labor specialization: through standardization/ mechanization/fixed job layout/fixed work method/.. New approach: Human factors are must considered in job design
Job Design (II)

Major objectives of job design: improve labor efficiency and productivity with high worker satisfaction. * Job design is a complex task. ---A major topic in IE ,many guidelines are suggested. * Job design in service operations: less formalized, more flexible.
Job Design Considerations

Job design: decision relate to how much jobs should be specialized or enlarged. Benefits of specialization: * less training time * faster work pace * lower wages
6A-101
Job Design Decision

Who
Mental and physical characteristics of the work force
What
Where
Geographic locale of the organization; location of work areas
When
Why
Organizational rationale for the job; objectives and motivation of the worker
How
Tasks to be performed
Time of day; time of occurrence in the work flow
Method of performance and motivation
Ultimate Job Structure
Trends in Job Design

Quality control as part of the worker's job
Cross-training workers to perform multi jobs
skilled
Employee involvement and team approaches to designing and organizing work
"Informating" ordinary workers through e-mail and the Internet
6A-103
Trends in Job Design (Continued)
Extensive use of temporary workers
Automation of heavy manual work Creating alternative workplaces
Organizational commitment to providing meaningful and rewarding jobs for all employees
6A-104
Behavioral Considerations in Job Design
Balancing the specialization in a job and its content through enrichment can give us.
Degree of
Specialization
Ultimate Job Structure
Job Enrichment
(vs. Enlargement)
6A-105
Sociotechnical Systems
Focuses on the interaction between technology and the work group by looking at.
Process Technology Needs
Task Variety Skill Variety Feedback Task Identity Task Autonomy
Worker/Group Needs
6A-106
Physical Considerations in Job Design
Work physiology sets work-rest cycles according to the energy expended in various parts of the job. The harder the work, the more the need for rest periods. Ergonomics is a term used to describe the study of the physical arrangement of the work space together with tools used to perform a task. Fit the work to the body rather than forcing the body to conform to the work.
Human Relations: Motivation and Morale

Maslows Ladder: Needs People Fill Through Work
Self realization needs
Esteem needs Social needs Safety needs Physiological needs
Job Design Considerations (II)

Disadvantages of narrowly defined jobs: * Poor employee morale, high turnover, low quality * The need for more management attention * Less flexibility to handle changes, absences Alternatives to specialization: * Job enlargement * Job rotation * Job enrichment
New Job Design Approaches

Job Rotation: training workers to perform several jobs so that they can be moved about from job to job during their work shift Job Enlargement: adding more tasks to a workers job. Adding more similar tasks is referred to as horizontal job enlargement Job Enrichment: adding more planning, inspecting, and tasks that have been regarded as management functions. Job enrichment is often referred to as vertical job enlargement Sociotechnical System Studies: attempts to design jobs that adjust the production technology to the needs of the workers Employee Empowerment Team Production
Practical Guidelines for Designing Workers Jobs

Elements of workers jobs Workers job tasks Suggested design guidelines Avoid machine pacing Combine inspection tasks into jobs so that workers inspect their own output Allow open communication Combine machine changeover, new job layouts, setups and other elements of immediate job planning into workers jobs Rotate workers where practical between jobs that are repetitive Assign new workers to undesirable jobs for fixed periods of time then transfer them to more preferred jobs Select and train supervisors who openly communicate Remove barriers between managing and other employees Workers needs affected Self control Self direction/ control Socialization, team building
Immediate job setting
Variety and relief of boredom and monotony equity recognition and socialization Equity and recognition
Larger work environment
Work Measurement
Work Measurement: establish a measurable work standard upon which to evaluate, compare and improve labor productivity. Work (labor) Standard: Determine on averagehow many labor-hour are required to produce one unit of desired output for a well-trained worker under normal operating conditions
Work Measurement (II)

Level of standard: * Operations/Department/Plant standards * Element/Operations/Product standards Use of work standard: * Work and personnel planning * Cost estimation for labor and machine Techniques to set work standard: * Time study * Work sampling * Elemental timing * Predetermined motion-time study
Work Measurement- Average Worker

Determined by observing several workers and estimating their average performance Sampling costs increase with number of workers sampled: accuracy of estimate increases as sample size increases Must tradeoff sampling cost and accuracy (See Supplement Example p.6-8)
How to Determine Average Worker Standard

Example from Distribution of 100 Workers Sample Number of Workers Sampled Performance in Units Per Hour 5 10-14 Mean 12 *5% =0.6
20 45
25 5
15-19 20-24
25-29 30-34
17 22
27 32
*20% *45%
*25% *5%
=3.4 =9.9
=6.75 =1.6
100
Total =
22.5
Work Measurement Techniques

Time study (stopwatch and micromotion analysis) Elemental standards time data Predetermined motiontime data Work sampling
Work Measurement Time Study

Standards time=
Normal time (1-allowance)
Normal time= (average cycle time)* (rating factor)

Time recorded to perform an element
Average cycle time=
Number of cycles observed
Allowance fraction= fraction of time for personal needs, unavoidable work delays, fatigue
Example: From Observation : {30,32,28,31,29,30} (minutes)

1) Average Cycle Time = (ti/n) = 180/6 = 30 (min) Given : Performance Rate: 1.05 2) Normal Time = 30* 1.05 = 31.5 (min) Given : Allowance factor () = 0.05 3) Standard Time = Normal Time
(1-) = 31.5/(1-0.05) = 33.15 (min)
Work Measurement- Work Sampling

Purpose:
To estimate what proportion of a workers time is devoted to work activities
Main Issues:
What level of statistical confidence is desired in the results? How many observations are necessary
Primary Applications:
Time standards: to obtain the standards time for a task
Work Measurement- Work Sampling Formulas

Total Study Time * Normal Time= Number of Units Produced
Proportion of Time Employee Observed Working *
Performance Rating Factor
Proportional of Time Employee Observed Working Or
Number of observations in which working occurred =
Number of Observations
x
P=
Work Measurement- work Sampling Formulas

Example: N= 100 (observations) X= 83 (sampled worker is working) P= 83/100 = 0.83 Total Study Time = 37.5 (hours) Rating Factor = 1.05 Number of Units Produced = 100
Given:
Normal Time = (37.5*0.83*1.05)/100 = 1/3 (hours) = 20 (min)
Supplemental Problems
1. Receptionists at the medical clinic are estimated to spend approximately 5% of the time during each shift in answering telephone calls. A work-sampling study of the receptionists job is proposed to determine more precisely how much time is actually spent on the telephone. If a 95% confidence interval and 2% absolute error are acceptable, how many work-sampling observations are required?
From Table {=5%, 2% Absolute Error} N= 475 For Example: Take one observation every 30 min. (1/2 hour) Total Study Time = (475 * ) = 237.5 (hours) ~240 ~30 (days) (8 working hours per day)
Supplemental Problems
2. A work-sampling study was performed on an electric assembly operation at OK Instruments. The study covered an 8 hour shift with a single worker. The results of the study were:
Activity Assemble Units Allowance Percent pf Workers Time 80% 20%
If the worker received a performance rating of 1.20 on the Assemble Units activity and 400 units were produced during the study, what is the labor standard for this operation?
Total Time Working
1.
Average Time: =
Total No. of Produced (8*60) * 80% = 0.96 (min) = 400
2. Normal Time
= Average Time * Rating Factor = (0.96*1.20) = 1.152 (min) Total Allowance Time 3. Allowance Factor (): = Total Time = (480*0.2) /480 = 20% Normal Time 4. Standard Time = 1- 1.152 = (1- 0.2) = 1.44 (min)
Work Measurement- Elemental StandardsTime Data

Elemental Standards- time data tables contain performance time for operations that are common to many applications Used where numerous configuration of product make detailed time study of each configuration impractical
Work Measurement- Predetermined MotionTime Study

Description: used in the planning process when the jobs are not currently being performed Can also be an alternative to observed time studies Basis in the historical information on basic human movement and motion such as reaching, gasping, lifting, etc. Elemental times have been developed for the basic human motion Commonly industry specific
New Approaches and Concepts in Job Design and Work Measurement

New Trend Job Design: * Efficiency: more simple, easy-eliminate all unnecessary moves/operations/ materials/ * Motivation: more responsible/more creative/more control more challengeable/
New Approaches and Concepts in Job Design and Work Measurement (II)
Learning (experience) curve in work measurement: Learning curve: representing the relationship between the time used in producing an item and the quantity to be reproduced repeatedly.
Arithmetic Plot of 70, 80, and 90 Percent Learning Curve
Learning Curve
0.30 Process time per unit (hr) 0.25 0.20 0.15 0.10 Learning 0.05 period 0 Standard time
Learning curve
| | | | | | 50 100 150 200 250 300 Cumulative units produced
Unit, Cumulative Average Direct Labor WorkerHours Required for an 80 Percent Learning Curve
(See Supplement Problem)

Problem #3, p. 18-19.
Number of Units Produced Labor Hours For nth Unit 1 2 4 22.500 20.250 18.225 22.5*0.9 22.5*0.92
(We need to develop A Table for this.)
8
16 32 64
16.4025
14.76225 13.286 11.957
128
256 512 1,024 2,048 4,096
10.762
9.686 8.717 7.845 7.061 6.355
4. A repair facility is bringing to repair a group of 35 identical machines with identical malfunction. It is estimated that the first unit will require 190 labor-hours, and an 85% learning rate is expected. a) How many labor hours will be required to repair the thirty-fifth machine? b) How many labor-hours will be required to repair all 35 machines?
a) From table (supplement p.6-24); [35th, 85%] = 0.434 T35th= (190)*(0.434)= 82.46 (hours) From table: =19.29 T total=190*19.29=3,665.1 (hours) Average Time: =(3665.1/35)= 104.7 (hours)
b)
c)
5. Specialty Metals Inc., a job shop that performs custom machining services, has received an order for machining the impellers for 22 pump housings, Specialty estimates that 26 labor-hours will be required to complete the first unit, and a learning rate of 75% is expected. a) Estimate the labor-hours required for the whole order. b) If the labor rate is $15 per hour and if Specialtys pricing policy is 2.2 times the labor cost for an order, what is the customers price for the whole order? c) What is the average labor cost per unit? Given: N= 22 a) Tall Price TFirst = 26 (hours) = 26*9.388 = 244 = 244*$15*2.2 = $8,052 = (244/22)*$15 = $166.36 75% Learning Rate
a)
a)
Average Cost
New Approaches and Concepts in Job Design and Work Measurement (III)
Use of learning curve in work measurement: In establishing a work standard for a mew product/service: * Standard time should be decline as workers are experienced. The more complex the work, the high degree the learning effect. Limits in using learning curve concept: it may be very difficult to find the learning rate for a department because: * Each worker learns differently at different age..

Production System Design

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Introduction to Industrial Engineering

PRODUCTION SYSTEM DESIGN

Job design and Work Measurement

Goods and Services

(Heizer and Render, Operations Management)

Assessing the Need for Industrial Design

Product Life Cycles

Product Life Cycles

Product Development Stages

Scope for design and engineering teams

QFD House of Quality

What the customer wants

Target values Technical evaluation

Design for Manufacturability and Value Engineering

Issues for Product Development

Computer Aided Design (CAD)

CAD supports Mass Customization

3-D Object Modeling

Computer-Aided Manufacturing (CAM)

Guidelines for Environmentally Friendly Designs

Documents for Production

Figure 5.11 (a)

Figure 5.11 (b)

Manual Insert 1 Wave Solder Test 4

Relationship Chart: A tool to use in Office Layout Decisions

2011 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Prentice Hall

Five Helpful Ideas for Supermarket Layout

2. Use prominent locations for high-impulse and high-margin items

5. Convey mission of store through careful positioning of lead-off department

2011 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Prentice Hall

2011 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Prentice Hall

Often supplied by manufacturer

3. Warehousing and Storage Layouts

Warehousing and Storage Layouts

Minimize damage and spoilage

2011 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Prentice Hall

Warehousing and Storage Layouts

Customized labeling and packaging

2011 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Prentice Hall

Shipping and receiving docks

Shipping and receiving docks

2011 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Prentice Hall

Limited space at site

2011 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Prentice Hall

Layout at Arnold Palmer Hospital

Central nurses station

2011 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Prentice Hall

Local nursing pod

Manufacturing Process Layout

2011 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Prentice Hall

2011 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Prentice Hall

Process Layout Example

Construct a from-to matrix

Try to improve the layout

2011 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Prentice Hall

Process Layout Example

2011 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Prentice Hall

Process Layout Example

2011 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Prentice Hall

Process Layout Example

Machine Shop (3)

2011 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Prentice Hall

Process Layout Example