Stratification

Divide and Conquer

Stratification
A technique used to divide data into subcategories or

classification to

provide useful

insight into the problem.

Meaning of Stratification
Root Word is Strata which means
Group Division Subclass Levels Layers

Stratification is an act of dividing data based on group, division, sub class, causes etc.

Rationale & Benefits

Data sources. comes from difference

E.g. : Different Machines, Instruments, Cities, Operators etc.

Data sometimes information.

masks

real

Stratification helps in getting meaningful information from data.

Divide the data and Conquer the Information.

Example : Late to Work

Reached late to office on following dates (unstratified data)
2/7, 6/7, 9/7, 16/7, 23/7, 30/7

Stratified data by day of the week.

Mon 5 Tue 0 Wed 0 Thu 0 Fri 1 Sat 0

Example : PCB Rejection

Unstratified Data Date Rejection 3/6 33 4/6 30 5/6 32

Example : PCB Rejection

Stratified Data
Time 9:00 10:00 10:00 11:00 11:00 12:00 12:00 1:00 1:00 1:30 1:30 2:30 2:30 3:30 3:30 4:30 4:30 5:30 3/6 15 1 2 1 10 3 0 1 4/6 14 2 0 0 Lunch 11 1 2 0 5/6 16 0 1 1 12 0 1 1

E.g. Accidents in Machine Shop

14

No. of Accidents

12 10 8 6 4 2 0

12 10

13 11 9

12

Jan

Feb

Mar

Apr

May

Jun

Month

After Stratification
14

No. of Accidents

12 10 8 6 4 2 0 Jan Feb

12 9

Press Shop Welding

11 8

10

1
Mar

1
Apr

2 0
May Jun

Month

Steps in Stratification
1. List all conditions 2. Collect and Stratify Data 3. Interpret the Data

Step 1 : List all Conditions

List all conditions that may seem to be the cause of the problem.
Shift Location Raw Material Source Operator Product Machine Inspection Equipment Day of Week Time of Day Material Batch Inspector Production Batch

Step 2 : Collect and Stratify Data

Collect additional data based on classification, if necessary.

Stratify

data

based

on

the

classification

Step 3 : Interpret the Data

Calculate average classification or plot graph. of each appropriate

Look for significant differences OR abnormalities in data. Generate a list of possible causes.

Pareto Chart
Vital Few and Trivial Many

Pareto Chart
Pareto Chart is a diagram that shows the order of the largest number of occurrences by item or by classes, and the cumulative sum total.

Genesis of Pareto Chart

Vilfredo Pareto (1848 1923), an Italian economist discovered in 1897 that 80% of a nations wealth was owned by 20% of the population. Dr. Joseph M. Juran applied this principle to Quality Management and called it the Pareto Principle.

Pareto Principle
Inputs Causes Effort 20% 80% Outputs Effects Results

Rationale and Benefits

Pareto Principle : 80 % of the problems comes from 20% of the causes. Distinguishes between vital few and trivial many. Displays relative importance of causes of a problem. Helps the team to focus on those causes that will have the greatest impact when solved.

Causes for Starting Late to Office

140

100%

78%
120 100

60% 80 60 40 20% 20 0 Newspaper Bathroom Overslept Delay 0% 40%

Causes

Garage I ron Clothes Others Door

Cumulative Percentage

80%

Frequency

Causes for Surface Defects

160 100%

84%
140 120

100 80 60 40 20 0

60%

40%

20%

0%

Stain

Scratch

Peeling

Causes

Crack

Pinhole

Gap

Others

Cumulative Percentage

80%

Frequency

Response
60

What did you like least after the surgery ?

76%

100%

50

40

60%

30

40%

20

20% 10

0%

Waiting Nursing No Privacy

No Empathy

Pain

No I nfo.

Others

Causes

Cumulative Percentage

80%

Frequency

1. Select the problem. 2. Collect data. 3. Sort data & calculate cumulative percentage. 4. Draw the axes. 5. Construct the bars. 6. Draw the cumulative percentage line. 7. Title and label the chart. 8. Identify Vital Few from the Trivial Many and plan further

Steps in making a Pareto Chart

Step 1 : Select the Problem

Select the problem for investigation. Decide what data will be necessary and how to classify them. Determine the method of collecting data and period of data collection. Design a separate Check Sheet if necessary. Eg : Causes for Service Complaints of Computer System.

Step 2 : Collect Data

Causes Print Problems Rodent Problem Server Crash Boot Problems Bad Configuration Virus Attack System Re-configuration Operating Corrupted Loose Connection Others System Frequency 11 3 23 8 6 52 3 9 4 5 12

Email not functioning

Step 3 : Sort Data & Calculate Cumulative

Code A B C D E F G H I J K Causes Virus Attack Server Crash Print Problems Operating Corrupted Boot Problems Bad Configuration Loose Connection Email not functioning System Re-configuration Rodent Problem Others System Freq- Cumulative Percentage uency 52 23 11 9 8 6 5 4 3 3 12 Freq. 52 Cumulative % age 52/136 = 42%

52+23=75 75/136 = 55% 75+11=86 86+9=95 103 109 114 118 121 124 136 63% 70% 76% 80% 84% 87% 89% 91% 100%

Step 4 : Construct the Axes

136

100%

120

136 = 100%
Cumulative Percentage
80%

100

Frequency

80

60%

60

40%

40 20% 20

0%

Causes

Step 5 : Draw the Bars

136

100%

120

100

80

60%

60

40%

40 20% 20

0%

Causes

Cumulative Percentage

80%

Frequency

Step 6 : Draw the Cumulative Percentage Line

136

100%

120

100

80

60%

60

40%

40 20% 20

0%

Causes

Cumulative Percentage

80%

Frequency

Step 7 : Label & Title the Chart Pareto of Service Complaints

136

100%

120

100

80

60%

60

40%

40 20% 20

0%

Causes

Cumulative Percentage

80%

Frequency

Step 8 : Interpret the Chart

136

Pareto of Service Complaints

100%

120

100

70%
60%

80

60

40%

40 20% 20

0%

Causes

Cumulative Percentage

80%

Frequency

Flat Pareto ??
100% 120

100

80

60%

60

40%

40 20% 20

0%

Causes

Cumulative Percentage

80%

Frequency

 It is undesirable that others represent a high percentage (should be < 10%). If the cause of a problem can be solved easily, implement it even if it belongs to the trivial many. Wherever possible, compare monetary data with frequency data. Draw the Pareto chart before and after improvement.

Tips for Making a Good Pareto Chart

Which problem to solve ?

Rejections by PPM
1200 80% 1000 100 Rs. in '000 800 PPM 60% 60% 80 60 40 20% 200 20 0 0% 20% 120 80% 100% 140

Rejections by Rs.

100%

600

40%

40%

400

0%

A B C D E F G H I J K

D B C E A G F J

I H K

Frequency
30 40 50 60

10

20

Waiting Nursing No Privacy

Before and After Improvement

Causes
No Empathy Pain No I nfo. Others
0% 10 0 20 50% 30 40

100%

Frequency

50

60

Nursing No Privacy No Empathy

Improvement

Causes

Waiting Pain No I nfo. Others

0% 100%

Brainstormin g
Creativity at Work

Brainstorming
Creativity and Collective Wisdom at Work Place. Diagnose, Problems Improvements Solve and Prevent Effect

and

Brainstorming Contd..
Technique for a team to

creatively and efficiently generate the greatest possible number of ideas on any topic.

Father of Brainstorming
Brainstorming was first effectively used and introduced by Alex F. Osborn of U.S.A. in 1941. An Advertisement Executive. Author of Book Applied Imagination.

Brainstorming
Brainstorming technique problems, stimulating and of is a solving creative conference specific thinking, in information,

amassing

developing new ideas by unrestrained spontaneous participation discussion. The Random House

Rationale and Benefits

Person close to the job knows more about the job. Encourages OPEN thinking. Enables people to participate in a creative way. Minimizes people. domination by a few

Self Fulfilling.

Types of Brainstorming Brainstorming

Structured A process in which each team member give ideas in turn. UnStructured A process in which each team member give ideas as they come to mind.

Stages of Brainstorming
1. Stating the Problem. 2. Re stating the problem. 3. Brainstorming. 4. Evaluating the ideas produced.

PreRequisites
Relaxed and cordial atmosphere. Information to all members about the theme of the session. All ideas should be recorded and recalled, if necessary. All should participate.

Four Rules of Brainstorming

Encourage Wild Ideas

Quantity rather than Quality Ideas

Four Rules of Brainstorming Contd.

Ride on Anothers Suspend Judgement Idea Piggyback

Guidelines and Ground Rules

Freewheeling is encouraged.
Wilder, Offbeat, Erratic, Stupid, Trail blazing, Impractical ideas are welcomed Be open minded Spontaneity required Evoke fun atmosphere Heart rules over Head

Guidelines and Ground Rules Contd..

Judgement Suspended.
Criticism Ruled out. Participation by All.

Quantity is encouraged.

Structured or Unstructured.

Combination and Improvement of Ideas.

Cross Fertilisation. Piggyback.

Six Persons - Six Minutes Formula.

Cause and Effect Diagram

Identify and Cure Causes

Cause and Effect Diagram

A diagram which represents meaningful relationship between an effect and its causes. A diagram which relation between Characteristic and Factors. Definition shows the a Quality the Cause JIS

Rationale and Benefits

Enables a team to identify, explore and graphically display all the possible causes related to a problem. A cause and effect diagram is good for seeing the whole causal relationship. Enables identification of root causes and not symptoms.

Father of Cause & Effect Diagram

Dr. Kaoru Ishikawa developed the first cause and effect diagram in 1943 while consulting for Kawasaki Steel Works. Dr. Juran named it Ishikawa diagram. as

Structure of C & E Diagram

Causes (Factors)
Big Bone

Medium Sized Bone

Back Bone

Effect (Characteristic)

Small Bone

C & E Diagram is also known as Fishbone Diagram

Three Types of Cause and Effect Diagram

1. Dispersion Analysis type. 2. Process Flow Classification type. 3. Cause Enumeration type. Note : Dispersion Analysis type and Cause Enumeration type differ only in the method of construction.

Dispersion Analysis type Cause and Effect Diagram

workers
Content Over experienced Experienced Under-experienced 6.4 Small Central axle

Materials
Large

2.6

Size 6 Large G axle bearing

Material Quality

11.6

Material quality Threads Nuts Loose Tight

Training Knowledge

Uneven
Personality F Cover Axle hole 9 Interval

Off-centre Measurement Errors Measuring tool Judgement Training Adjustment Off-centre

Wobble
Cover hole

G axle cover
Inspector Experience F axle cover Metal drill Axle stop

G axle bearing cover Uneven Plating

Judgement method

Punch width F cover

Inspection

Tools

Process Flow Classification type Cause & Effect Diagram

Bench movement Roll Dropping Impurity Bunching Group movement Flare Conveyor Bench movement Common aberration

Loosening

Position placement

Material

Pipe making

Correcting
Bench rolling

Planning

Water Pressure test

Difference

Bed removing

Inspection

Steel Pipe scars

Movement Weight Polishing Weight Arrange bench drop Polish Movement

Position placement Bench rolling

Surface paint Bunching Wire Value Carriage

Steps in Constructing Dispersion type C & E Diagram

1. State the undesirable effect. 2. Identify the main cause groups. 3. Identify causes and subcauses. 4. Identify potential root cause(s).

Step 1
State the undesirable effect and draw the back bone and draw a line.
Causes Effect

High Process Rejection

Step 2
Identify the main cause groups such as man, machine, method, material, measurement, tool.
Causes Effect
Machine Man

High Process Rejection

Material

Method

Step 3
Identify the causes and sub causes. Ask WHY several times.
Causes
Machine Man

Effect

Not Specified to Vendor

No Inspection

High Process Rejection

High Hardness

Rod Bent
Poor Handling

Material

Method

Step 4
Identify potential root cause(s).
Causes
Machine Man

Effect

Not Specified to Vendor

No Inspection

High Process Rejection

High Hardness

Rod Bent
Poor Handling

Material

Method

Identify Significance of Each Cause

High Significance

Moderate Significance

Weak Significance

Steps in Constructing Process Flow Type C & E Diagram

1. State the undesirable effect. 2. Draw the diagram. main process flow

3. Identify the cause and subcauses at each stage of the process. 4. Identify potential root cause(s).

Step 1
State the undesirable effect and draw a verticle line. Effect Causes

Delay in Delivery

Step 2
Draw the main process flow.
Causes Effect

Material Receipt

Machining

Assembly

Inspection

Delay in Delivery

Step 3
Identify the cause and subcauses at each stage of the process.
Causes
Material Rejected Capacity Constraint Absenteeism Incomplete Assembly

Effect

Material Receipt
Vendor Tool Damaged

Machining

Assembly

Inspection

Delay in Delivery

Material Shortage

Machine Breakdown

High Cycle Time

Rectification

Step 4
Identify potential root cause(s).
Causes
Material Rejected Capacity Constraint Absenteeism Incomplete Assembly

Effect

Material Receipt
Vendor Tool Damaged

Machining

Assembly

Inspection

Delay in Delivery

Material Shortage

Machine Breakdown

High Cycle Time

Rectification

Steps in Constructing Cause Enumeration Type C & E Diagram

1. State the undesirable effect. 2. List all possible brainstorming. causes using

3. Arrange causes and subcauses showing the relationship between cause and effect. 4. Identify potential root cause(s).

Step 1
State the undesirable effect.
Time for Installation of Machine is High

Step 2
List all possible causes brainstorming. Time for
Performance problems during installation No communication to branch on civil work Customers Project Postponed

using

Installation of Machine is High

Relevant Forms not received Lorry not availabl e

Poor followup by branch

Civil work not commenced Lack of Funds

Customer wants see our installation Do not have license for stamping

Payment not collected as per terms Parts not available on time

Step 3

Arrange causes and Branch suitably. HO Delay Causes

Delay
Parts not available on time
Relevant Forms not received

subcauses
Effect

Poor follow-up by branch

Do not have license Poor information for stamping Performance problems Payment not on site readiness during installation collected as per terms

Lack of Funds No communication Customer wants to branch on civil see our installation work Project Civil work not Postponed commenced

Lorry not available

Time for Installation of Machine is High

Customer Delay

Others

Step 4

Identify potential root cause(s).

HO Delay Branch Causes Delay
Relevant Forms not received

Effect

Donot have license Poor information for stamping on site readiness Performance problems Payment not during installation collected as per terms

Parts not available on time

Poor follow-up by branch

Lack of Funds No communication Lorry not to branch on civil work Customer wants available see our installation Project Civil work not Postponed commenced

Time for Installation of Machine is High

Customer Delay

Others

Hints for Constructing a C & E Diagram

Identify all the relevant causes (factors) & the causes most strongly influencing the effect (characteristic). Express the effect (characteristic) negatively. The linking question between effect and its cause is WHY ?. Make the same number of cause and effect diagrams as that of

Scatter Identifying Correlation Diagram

Scatter Diagram
A chart used to study and identify the possible relationship between two variables.

Scatter Diagram Contd..

To identify the possible relationship between the changes observed in two variables. To establish the
Existence of correlation Type of correlation Strength of the relation

Rationale and Benefits

To confirm a hypothesis (assumption) that two variables are related. Provide both visual and statistical means to test the strength of a potential relationship. Provide a good follow up to a cause and effect diagram to find out if there is more than just a consensus connection between causes and effects.

Examples of Two Variables

Cake height and Oven temperature. Weight and Height of a person. Population & Literacy levels in a state. Weight error and Earthing voltage. Nonconformance & Operator experience

Examples of Two Variables Contd..

Hardness & Carbon content Inspection Mistakes & Illumination levels Elongation of threads & Moisture content Childs height & Fathers height Quality characteristic and the Factor affecting it.

Weight & Height of a Person

110 100

Weight (kg)

90 80 70 60 50 40 155

160

165

170

175

180

185

190

Height (cm)

Capacitance & Line Width

Capacitance (Pictofarads)
3.5 3 2.5 2 1.5 1 0.5

30

40

50

60

70

80

Line Width / Spacing (in microns)

Steps in making a Scatter Diagram

1. Collect paired data. 2. Choose independent variable. 3. Draw the axes. 4. Plot the points 5. Label and title the chart 6. Interpret the chart. and dependent

Step 1: Collect Data

Collect 50 100 paired data (X,Y) between which you want to study the relation, and construct a data sheet
Sample Oven Temperature Cake Height

1 2 3 . . 60

60o 49o 57o . . 68o

3.2 cm 2.8 cm 3.0 cm . . 3.3 cm

Step 2 : Choose Independent and Dependent Variables.

Always choose X axis for the cause and Y axis for the effect, when the two variables consist of a factor and quality characteristics.
Oven Temperature = Independent Cake Height = Dependent

Find the respective maximum and minimum values of the variable.

Step 3 : Draw the Axes.

5 4.5 4 3.5 3 2.5 2
35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70

Dependent Variable, Cake Height

Independent Variable, Oven Temperature

Step 4 : Plot the data

5 4.5 4 3.5 3 2.5 2
35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70

Step 5 : Label & Title the chart

Oven Temperature vs. Cake Height
5

Cake Height (cm)

4.5 4 3.5 3 2.5 2 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70

Oven Temperature (oC)

Step 6 : Interpreting the Chart

3.5

Strong Positive Correlation Increase in x, will increase y

2.5 2

1.5 1

Variable y, Dependent
3

35

40

Variable x, Independent 45 50 55 60

65

70

Step 6 : Interpreting the Chart Contd..

-1

Strong Negative Correlation Increase in x, will decrease y

40 45 50 55 60 65

-1.5

-2.5

-3.5

Variable y, Dependent

35

70

-2

-3

Variable x, Independent

Step 6 : Interpreting the Chart Contd.. Positive Correlation

3.5

2.5

1.5

Variable y, Dependent

Increase in x, may increase y

1 35 40

Variable50 Independent x, 45 55 60

65

70

Step 6 : Interpreting the Chart Contd.. Negative Correlation

-1

Increase in x, may Decrease y

35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70

-1.5

-2.5

-3.5

Variable y, Dependent
-2 -3

Variable x, Independent

Step 6 : Interpreting the Chart Contd..

3.5

No Correlation

2.5

1.5

Variable y, Dependent
3 2 1 30 35

Variable x,50 Independent 40 45 55 60

65

70

Control Chart Understanding and

Reducing Variation.

Control Chart It is a type of run chart used for studying process performance over time in order to understand and reduce variation.

Father of Control Chart

Dr. Walter A. Shewhart invented the control chart. He was working in Bell Labs on a project to make all telephones alike. Published the book Economic Control of Quality of Manufactured Product in 1931.

Principles of Variation
1. Every process variation. is subject to

2. More the variation in the process, more the loss to society. 3. Two types of causes affect variation. a. Common Cause (also known as Chronic cause, Chance cause)

Principles of Variation Contd..

b. Special Cause (also known as Sporadic cause, Assignable cause) 4. Action on variation entirely depends on type of cause identified.

Common Cause
The cumulative effect of many small and individually uncontrollable causes of variation in a process.

Special Cause
One or a few causes of variation that result in a large variation in the process.

Common vs. Special Cause

Common Cause Special Cause Consists of many Consists of one or individual causes. a few causes. Results relatively variation. in Results in smaller variation. large

Process needs to Process need not be investigated be tampered with. and corrected. Process is consi- Process dered stable. unstable. is

Rationale and Benefits

Control chart is used for differentiating between common causes and special causes of variation. Control chart also helps determining whether the
process is stable. process is capable.

in

It helps in performance.

predicting

process

Types of Data
Variable Data Data that can be measured. E.g.: Weight, Length, Diameter, Hardness, Angle. Attribute Data Data that can be counted. E.g.: Defects, Scratches, Spatters, Blow holes, cracks.

Dent,

Classification of Control Chart

Control Chart Variable Data X R Chart X mR chart mX mR Chart Attribute Data p chart c chart np chart u chart

Example of Control Chart

26.25

Diameter (mm)

26.00 25.75 25.50 25.25 25.00 24.75 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

UCLx X LCLx
9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25

2.0

Range (mm)

1.5 1.0 0.5 0.0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

UCLR R LCLR
9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25

Sub-group

Parts of a Control Chart

X Axis Variable Data
26.25 26.00 25.75 25.50 25.25 25.00 24.75 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25

Central Line
UCLx X LCLx

Sub-Group

Diameter (mm)

Contro l Limits

Data Points

Definition of Terms
Sub Group
Smaller groups of collected over time. sample data

Central Line
The average of all the sub group averages.

Control Limits
The outer Variation. limits of Process

Control Limit vs. Specification Limit

Control Limit Specification Limit Variation in the Requirement of the process. customer. Noise of process. the Voice of customer. the

Limits change with Limits change only setting, correction, when customer process changes wishes to change. etc. Indicates Indicates Requirement. Capability.

Steps in Constructing a Control Chart

1. Collect the data. 2. Calculate subgroup average. 3. Calculate overall average. 4. Calculate the range. 5. Compute average of range. 6. Calculate control limits for X and R

Step 1: Collect Data

Collect and stratify data into subSubX2 X3 X4 X5 groups. X1
Group 1 2 3 4 47 19 29 28 32 37 11 29 44 31 16 42 35 25 11 59 20 34 44 38

Step 2: Calculate Subgroup X Average,

X1 + X 2 + X 3 + X 4 + X 5 X1 = n

47 + 32 + 44 + 35 + 20 X1 = = 35.6 5
where n is the size of the subgroup.

Step 3: Calculate the Overall X Average,

X1+ X 2 + X 3 + X 4 X = k
35 .6 + 29 .2 + 22 .2 + 39 .2 X = 4
where k is the number of subgroups.

Step 4: Calculate the Subgroup Range, R

R = Maximum Value Minimum Value

R1 = 47 20 = 37

Step 5: Calculate the Average R of Ranges,

R1 + R 2 + R 3 + R 4 R= k
27 +18 + 33 + 31 R= = 27 .25 4
where k is the number of subgroups.

Step 6: Compute Control Limits

Control Limits for X chart Central Line = X Upper Control Limit : Lower Control Limit :

UCL X = X + A2 R LCL = X A R
X 2

A2 is the coefficient depends the subgroup size

whose

value on

Step 6 : Control Limits for R Chart

Central Line : R Upper Control Limit :UCL R Lower Control Limit : LCL R

= D4 R

= D3 R

D3 and D4 are coefficients whose value depend on the subgroup size.

Step 6: Coefficients for X chart

Subgroup Size

X Chart
A2 1.880 1.023 0.729 0.577 0.483 D3 0 0 0 0 0

R Chart

n 2 3 4 5 6

D4 3.267 2.574 2.282 2.114 2.004

d2 1.128 1.693 2.059 2.326 2.534

Step 7 : Plot the Control Chart

Vertical Axis:X and R values Horizontal Axis : Subgroup number Draw the central line :

and R.

Draw the control limit lines.

Step 7 : Plot the Control Chart Contd..

Plot the X and R values and join the points. Write necessary items like name of the process, product, size of the subgroup, work conditions, shift, etc.

Step 8 : Interpret the chart

Process Stability Look at the pattern of variation.
Should be random and not a systematic pattern.

Look for presence of special causes.

5 rules of special cause identification.

Process Capability Establish process variation. Compare with customer specification and establish process capability.

Stable Process

X bar or R
1 2

9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25

- Random variation and no systematic pattern - No action required (if Cpk > 1.67)

Rule 1: Points beyond Control Limit

X bar or R
1 2

9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25

- Presence of special cause - Identify root cause and take action.

Rule 2: Run of 7 points on one side of Central Line

X bar or R
1 2

9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25

- Presence of special cause - Process has shifted.

Rule 3: Six Consecutive Points Increasing or Decreasing

X bar or R
1 2

9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25

- Presence of special cause - Process is deteriorating.

Rule 4: Periodicity

X bar or R
1 2

9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25

- Presence of special cause - Periodic Interference in the process.

Rule 5: Fourteen Consecutive Points Alternating Up and Down

X bar or R
1 2

9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25

- Presence of special cause. - Identify root cause and take action.

Process Capability Process Capability is a measure of inherent variability of the process when compared with the customer requirements.

Rationale and Benefits

Assess capability of a process to meet customers requirement. Assist in selecting or modifying a process. Assist in selection of machine. To build quality into the product and process rather than achieving quality by inspection.

Process Capability Assessment

R = d2
Process Variation = 6

Establish Process Variation

d2 is a constant based on sub group size.

Refer slide number 101 / PST&T / O 22

Compare with Customer Specification

Customer Requirement Capability Process Variation =

USL LSL Cp = 6
Cp > 1.33; Process is more capable than customer requirement

Compare with Customer Specification Contd..

Cp = 1.0; Process is just capable of meeting customers requirement Cp< 1.0; Process is not capable of meeting customers requirement

Compare with Customer Specification Contd..

(USL X ) ( X LSL) Cpk = Minimum ; 3 3

Cpk = Cp; respect Process is centred with to customers requirement. Cpk Cp; Process is NOT centred with respect to customers requirement.

Accidents in a Factory
Total Accidents A B C D E F - Accidents with respect to Head - Accidents with respect to Face - Accidents with respect to Body - Accidents with respect to Hand : : : : : 94 1 3 7 9 69 5 94

- Accidents with respect to Fingers : - Accidents with respect to Leg :

Cause Percentage
Percentage Cummulative Percentage

E D C F B A

69 / 94 x 100 9 / 94 x 100 7/ 94 x 100 5 / 94 x 100 3 / 94 x 100 1 / 94 x 100

= = = = = =

73.40% 9.57% 7.45% 5.32% 3.19% 1.07% 100.00%

73.40 % 82.97 % 90.42 % 95.74% 98.93% 100.00%

Pareto Chart
90 80 70 60

69 73.4%

Frequency

50 40 30 20 10 0

E : VITAL FEW D, C. F. B, A = TRIVIAL MANY

5
F

3
B

1
A

Causes

Pareto Chart
VITAL FEW FROM TRIVIAL MANY A PCB Rejected 30% @ Wave Soldering Stage Causes : A B C D E - Wrong Mounting Compt Missing Dry Solder Compt Jumping Wrong Polarity 3 2 16 8 1 30

Pareto Chart
Rearranging the same Causes : C 16 53.34% D 80.00% A 3 90.00% B 96.66% E 1 1 /30 * 100 = 3.33% 2 2 / 30 * 100 = 6.66% 3 / 30 * 100 = 10.00% 8 8 / 30 * 100 = 26.66% 16 / 30 * 100 = 53.33%

Pareto Chart
30

96.6
25

90 80

100 %

Frequency

16

15

10

8 C+D 3 2
B

Percentage : 80% 1
E

20

A, B, E : 20%

Causes

Pareto Chart
Eg : A casting machine had 32% rejection Causes : A B C D E Due to Workmanship Due to Casting Quality Due to Cutter Problem Due to Machine problem : : : : 32 : 8 18 2 1
81.25%

Due to Miscellaneous causes

Pareto Chart
Data Structuring
Item Number Cummulative Percentage Cummulative Total Percentage C B A D E 18 8 3 2 1 18 26 29 31 32 56.25 25.00 9.37 6.25 3.13 56.25 81.25 90.62 96.87 100.00

Pareto Chart
40 100 35

30

25

Percentage

20

56.2 5 25

60

C+B

: 81.25% = Vital few

40

15

A, D, E = Trivial many

10

18 8

9.37
20

6.25 3.13
3 2
D

0 C B A

1
E

Cummulative Percentage

90.6 2 81.2 5

96.8 7
80

Cause & Effect Diagram

Performance
Monitoring Efficiency

Planning
Scheduling

Capacity
Assessment
Shortage

Identify Line Balance Bottle Neck MRP

Work Load

Monitoring Rejections QC

Training Rework QC

Mgmt. Style Resignations Wages Transport Environment

Excessive Overtime

Quality

High Turnover

Cause & Effect Diagram depicting the causes for Divorces Family
Incompatibility
Sexual Social Family Over family affiliation by either spouse

Pressure
Demands Disliking Family (Like Dowry) Members

Ego
Popularity Family Torture Successful Profession Superior Educatio n Special Talent Rich Family Background

Staying away Thought

Religious

Work

Cultural

Sexual

Non availability Materialistic

Inability to earn Greed

Divorce
Illness (Like mental, psychological)

Miser Spend Thrift

Spirituality Affairs

Character

Monetary

Popularity Behavioural

Insecurity

Personal
Workaholic

Failure in expectations

Money
Over Possessivenes s Distraction s

Q.C.C - Case Studies

Reducing Rejections Reducing Cycle Time Reducing Consumables Cost Reducing Energy Cost Design Change Improving manufacturing process Eratic behaviour of machine Elimination of canteen Coupons

Q.C.C - Case Studies

Elimination of Leave Application Elimination of mosquito menace in the colony Raising blood donations Reducing accidents Improving management education Improving security of goods in an organisation Improving Environment of Organisation Improving Safety provisions

Otto Bilz India Pvt. Ltd.

World Class Manufacturing Goals & Targets
Sl.No . Goals Present / 2002 43545 PPM 43.05% Targets 2003 2000 PPM >95% 8.5 in 10 scale 8.5 in 10 scale 8.5 in 10 scale 2004 2005

1. Quality level 2. On time Delivery

500 PPM 100 PPM >98% 100%

3. Customer Satisfaction 7.3 in 10 Scale 4. Employee Satisfaction To be measured 5. Supplier Satisfaction To be measured

9.0 in 10 9.5 in 10 scale scale 9.0 in 10 9.5 in 10 scale scale 9.0 in 10 9.5 in 10 scale scale

Otto Bilz India Pvt. Ltd.

World Class Manufacturing Goals & Targets
Sl.No . Goals Present / 2002 Targets 2003 2004 2005

6. OEE 7. SGA 8. Suggestion / Kaizen 9. Training Hrs / Employee / Year 10. New customer for existing product New product for existing customer

43% 0 0

>65% 60 Nos. 300 Nos.

>75% 100 Nos. 600 Nos. 6 mandays /Employee 35%

>85% 120 Nos. 1000 Nos. 7 mandays / Employee 40%

5 man-days @ 5 man-days / 35% Employee 16% 25%

Otto Bilz India Pvt. Ltd.

World Class Manufacturing Goals & Targets
Sl.No . Goals Present / 2002 Targets 2003 2004 2005

11. Inventory Turn over ratio 12. Sales Turn over 13. Std hrs cleared / Employee / month 14. Debtors Turnover Ratio 15. Certification

3.95 8 crores 80 hrs 69 days Preparation

8 10 crores 125 hrs 45 days ISO 14001 / TS 16949 OSHAS

15 15 crores 140 hrs 40 days

25 25 crores 160 hrs 30 days

Otto Bilz India Pvt. Ltd.

World Class Manufacturing Goals & Targets
Sl.No . Goals Present / 2002 Targets 2003 2004 2005

16. Golden peacock award 17. CII Excellence award 18. Deming Award 19. 6 Sigma 20. Quality cost / Sales

Nil Nil

Implementation

Golden peacock Award 2006

Preparation Nil Three Rs.4300000 @ 5.3% Initiation Rs.3 lakhs @ 0.3% 4 Sigma Rs.1 lakh @ 0.07%

5 Sigma Rs.50000 @ 0.02

Otto Bilz India Pvt. Ltd.

World Class Manufacturing Internal Goals & Targets
Sl.No . Goals Present 30 nos. -1.3% -5% 5% 2.14 lakhs Targets 2003 5 15% 5% 4% 3.25 2004 2 20% 15% 3.5% 4.5 2005 0 25% 30% 3% 7.0

1. Customer complaints 2. Operating profit % to sales 3. EVA % to Expected return 4. Energy cost to sales 5. Value added Per Employee

EVA : Economic Value Addition

What is Kaizen ?

Kaizen means continuous improvement Kaizen is basically small small improvements carried out by the person who is doing the job in his day to day work Continuous improvement everyday through involvement of everyone in the organisation is the key for excellence.

Piling small improvements on top of each other

What is Kaizen ?
The Kaizen philosophy implies that :

Whatever we do can be continuously improvedbe it our working life or personal life. Kaizen is something that anybody can do, every operator must devote time for making improvements. Kaizen means looking at everyday work in a new way, seeking out area, aspects of work to improve upon, it represents the struggles on the job, and the means adopted to overcome these struggles with intuition, creativity, resourcefulness, common sense and determination to break the status quo.

What is Kaizen ?

Kaizen in essence, means adopting a new way, not just of doing work, but a new way of thinking, one in which problems are not shunned but eagerly sought out, welcomed and solved.

Kaizen means creating a place where employees feel better at work. - Y. Yasuda

KAIZEN
Small Steps Conventional Know-How Efforts Process-Oriented Slow-Growth Economy

INNOVATIO N Big Steps

Technological Breakthrough Investment Result-Oriented Fast-Growth Economy

Cultural Differences Between Kaizen and Traditional Organisations Sl.N Item Kaizen Traditional
o. 1. Management Culture Preventive 2. View of customer 3. View of people 4. Shop floor (GEMBA) 5. Shop floor methods 6. Measurements 7. Support staff 8. Problem focus of solutions Market-In Assets Improvement Source Crisis Product-Out Costs Problem / Failure Source

Constant ImprovementStatic and Routine Trends of Improvement Serving Shop Floor Treasures End result only Critical of shop floor Rejection

Cultural Differences Between Kaizen and Traditional Organisations Traditional Sl.N Item Kaizen
o. 9. Information Shared / Open Restricted / Closed Weakness Adversary Do as told Specialise Inspector Fast / Skimming

10. Approach to Employee Strengths 11. Appraisal Unions 12. Development 13. Supervision 14. Career approach 15. Movement Partners On-going learning Despecialise Coach Slow / Broadening

16. Management Concern Cross Functional Functional control Support Process Results only. Results change long Routine short term term

Market-In TQC Industrial Robots QC Circles Suggestion System Automation Discipline in the workplace TPM

Kanban Quality Improvement Just-In-Time Zero Defects Small Group Activities Labour-Management Relations Productivity Improvement New-Product Development

KAIZEN UMBRELLA