Geology

The word geology comes from the Greek word

geo, earth, and logia, the study of. Geology, a science that examines the earth, its form and composition, and the changes it has undergone and is undergoing. But it is really hard to know our planet because it is dynamic heavenly body having a long and complex origin and history.

Geology is an important way of understanding the world around us, and it enables scientist to predict how our planet will behave. Scientist and others use geology to understand how geological events and earths geological history affect people.

Three main principles, or concepts, to study earth and its history.

1. Plate tectonics is the theory that the earths surface is made up of separate, rigid plates moving and floating over another, less rigid layer of rock. These plates are made up of the continents and the ocean floor as well as the rigid rock beneath them. 2. Geologic Cycles The second guiding concept is that many processes that occur on the earth may be described in terms of recycling: the reuse of the same materials in cycles, or repeating series of events. 3. Uniformitarianism states that the physical and chemical processes that have acted throughout geologic time are the same processes that are observable today. Because of this, geologists can use their knowledge of what is happening on the earth right now to help explain what happened in the past.

Age of the Earth

Geologists and non-geologists alike have been fascinated for years with the questions about the earths age. Since the earth is geologically very active, no rocks have been preserved unchanged since the was formed. The use of isotopic methods, the age of the earth still could not be told. The moon, meteorites, and the earth were formed all at the same time. Our own satellite, the moon, is much smaller in comparison with the earth. It cooled more rapidly after accretion and has been geologically inactive for billions of years. The oldest of the samples from Apollo lunar missions are approximately 4.6 billion years old. Meteorites, extraterrestrial fragments of rocks and or metal that have fallen to the earth are some of the many samples that geologists have examined. Some of these have been disturbed after formation by collisions in space or by other processes, but most of the meteorites have ages in the 4.6 to 6.4 billion year range. The earth and meteorites, according to chemical similarities, were formed from the same materials (solar nebula) and presumably at the same time. Due to this, the earth is inferred to have formed at about 4.55 billion years ago. The oldest terrestrial rocks that have been accurately dated directly are close to 4 billion years old and the oldest rocks on each continent are found to be generally between 3.6 and 3.9 billion years old.

Size and Shape of the Earth

O Erathostenes

-calculated the size of the earth -by measuring the distance between a deep well to Syene and Alexandria and the angle of the moon and sun in Alexandria on the first day of summer. -he found the angle to a little more than 7 degrees which is almost 1/50th of a complete circle. Thus, the distance between the well and Alexandria must be approximately 1/50th of the earths circumference. - the estimate circumference of the earth was about 43,200 km

O Isaac Newton

-proved that the earths circumference at the poles was less than the circumference at the equator. -its diameter at the equator is about 43.2 km greater than the diameter at the poles. -scientists agree that the slight bulge is cause by rapid rotation of the earth on its axis which makes the earths shape spherical

Areas of Geology
1.

Physical Geology is the study of the materials composing the earth and the processes and phenomena that operate beneath and upon its surface. Division

Geophysics Is such a broad field that scientist sometimes consider it a separate field from geology. Also includes the study of the physics of materials such as rocks, minerals, and ice within the fields of petrology, mineralogy, and glaciology.
a.

Seismology - the largest sub discipline in geophysics, the study of the travel of seismic waves through the earth. Seismic waves - are generated naturally by earthquakes, or they can be made artificially by explosions from bombs or air guns Seismologist - who study earthquakes and construct models of the earths interior using seismic techniques.

Geophysicists- who study the behavior of the plants oceans, atmosphere, and volcanoes. Specialists called Volcanologists study the worlds volcanoes and try to predict eruptions by using seismology and other remote sensing techniques, such as satellite imagery. Monitoring active volcanoes is especially important in highly populated areas. b. Geochemistry is the application to the study of the earth, its materials, and the cycling of chemicals through its systems. It is essential in numerical dating and reconstructing past conditions on the earth. Geochemistry is important for tracing the transport of chemicals through the earths four component system: the lithosphere (rocky exterior), the hydrosphere (waters of the earth), the atmosphere (air), and the biosphere (the system of living things). Geochemistry has important application in environmental and economic geology as well as in the fields of mineralogy and petrology.

c. Mineralogy and Petrology Mineralogy the study of minerals Petrology the study of rocks Mineralogists and Petrologists who study the origin, occurrence, structure, and history of rocks or minerals. They attempt to understand the physical, chemical, and less commonly, biological conditions under which geologic materials from. Mineralogy is important for understanding natural materials and is also used in the materials engineering field, such as in ceramics. Petrology focuses on two of the three rock types: igneous rocks rocks made from molten material and metamorphic rocks those rocks that have been changed by high temperatures or pressures. The third rock type, sedimentary rocks, are the focus of sedimentary geology, commonly classified under historical geology.

d. Structural Geology Deals with the form, arrangement, and internal structure of rocks, including their history of deformation, such as folding and faulting. Includes everything from field mapping to the study of microscopic deformation with rocks. Neotectonics is the study of recent faulting and deformation; such studies can reconstruct the history of active faults, and the history can be used in hazard analysis and land-use planning Tectonics is commonly used for large-scale structural geology, such as the history of a mountain belt, or plate tectonics (the study of the crustal plates).

e. Hydrology and Geomorphology Hydrology is the study of water on the earths surface, excluding the oceans. Hydrogeology is the study of groundwater and the geologic process of surface water. Geomorphology is the examination of the development of present landforms. Geomorphologists commonly specialize in one of many areas, such as in glacial or periglacial (near glaciers)

f. Marine Geology Geology specific to the ocean environment is called marine geology. Marine geologists may be specialists in a number of fields, including petrology, sedimentology, stratigraphy, paleontology, geochemistry, geophysics, and volcanology. They may take samples from the ocean while out at sea or make measurements through remote sensing techniques. Drilling platforms and drilling ships allow earth scientists to make moredetailed studies of the history of the oceans and the ocean floor. g. Environmental, Economic, and Engineering Geology Environmental geology involves the protection of human health and safety through understanding geological processes. For example, it is critically important to understand the geology of areas where people propose to store nuclear waste products. The study of geologic hazards, such as earthquakes and volcanic eruptions, can also be considered part of environmental geology. Economic geology is the use of geologic knowledge to find and recover materials that can be used profitably by humans, including fuels, ores, and building materials. Because these products are so diverse, economic geologists must be broadly trained; they commonly specialize in a particular aspect of economic geology, such as petroleum geology or mining geology. Engineering geology is the application of engineering principles to geologic problems. Two fields of engineering that use geology extensively are civil engineering and mining engineering. For example, the stability of a building or bridge requires an understanding of both the foundation material (rocks, soil) and the potential for earthquakes in the area.

2. Historical Geology deals with the study of the evolution of the earth. It continues to establish a systematic chronological arrangement of the biological and physical changes that have taken place in the geologic past.

Historical Geology
O focuses on the study of the evolution of

earth and its life through time. Historical geology includes many subfields. O Stratigraphy and sedimentary geology are fields that investigate layered rocks and the environments in which they are found O Geochronology is the study of determining the age of rocks O Paleontology is the study of fossils.

THE GEOLOGIC TIME SCALE

O The process of determining geologic time

includes several steps. 1. Geologists first determine the relative age of rockswhich rocks are older and which are younger. They then may correlate rocks to determine which rocks are the same age. 2. Next, they construct a geologic time scale. 3. Finally, they determine the specific numerical ages of rocks by various dating methods and assign numbers to the time scale.

A. Relative Time

Geologists create a relative time scale using rock sequences and the fossils contained within these sequences. The scale they create is based on The Law of Superposition, which states that in a regular series of sedimentary rock strata, or layers, the oldest strata will be at the bottom, and the younger strata will be on top. Danish geologist Nicolaus Steno (also called Niels Stensen) used the idea of uniformity of physical processes.

B. Biostratigraphy
biostratigraphy geologists study the placement of fossils to determine geologic time. British surveyor William Smith and French anatomist Georges Cuvier both reasoned that in a series of fossil-bearing rocks, the oldest fossils are at the bottom, with successively younger fossils above.

C. Correlation to determine which rocks are of equal age is important for reconstructing snapshots in geologic history. Correlation may use the physical characteristics of rocks or fossils to determine equivalent age. For example, the limestone at the top of one side of the Grand Canyon can be correlated to the opposite side of the canyon. Also, ash from a volcanic eruption can be correlated over long distances and wide areas. Fossils are the most useful tools for correlation. Since the work of Smith and Cuvier, biostratigraphers have noted that 'like fossils are of like age. This is the principle of fossil correlation.
D. Radiometric Dating is to determine numerical ages of rocks and to assign numbers to the geologic time scale. The primary tool for this task is radiometric dating, in which the decay of radioactive elements is used to date rocks and minerals.

discipline in the 18th century, but humans have been collecting systematic knowledge of the earth since at least the Stone Age. In the Stone Age, people made stone tools and pottery, and had to know which materials were useful for these tasks. Between the 4th century and 1st century BC, ancient Greek and Roman philosophers began the task of keeping written records relating to geology. Throughout the medieval and Renaissance periods, people began to study mineralogy and made detailed geologic observations. The 18th and 19th centuries brought widespread study of geology, including the publication of Charles Lyells book Principles of Geology, and the National Surveys (expeditionsa that focused on the collection of geologic and other scientific data). The concept of geologic time was further developed during the 19th century as well. At the end of the 19th century and into the 20th century, the field of geology expanded even more. During this time, geologists developed the theories of continental drift, plate tectonics, and seafloor spreading.

History of Geology Geology originated as a modern scientific

A. Ancient Greek and Roman Philosophers In western science, the first written records of geological thought come from the Greeks and Romans. In the 1st century BC, for example, Roman architect Vitruvius wrote about building materials such as pozzolana, a volcanic ash that Romans used to make hydraulic cement, which hardened under water. Historian Pliny the Elder, in his encyclopedia, Naturalis Historia (Natural History), summarized Greek and Roman ideas about nature. Science as an organized system of thought can trace its roots back to the Greek philosopher Aristotle. In the 4th century BC Aristotle developed a philosophical system that explained nature in a methodical way. His system proposed that the world is made of four elements (earth, air, fire, and water), with four qualities (cold, hot, dry, and wet), and four causes (material, efficient, formal, and final). According to Aristotle, elements could change into one another, and the earth was filled with water and air, which could rush about and cause earthquakes. Other philosophers of this era who wrote about earth materials and processes include Aristotle's student Theophrastus, the author of an essay on stones. B. Chinese Civilizations Chinese civilizations developed ideas about the earth and technologies for studying the earth. For example, in 132 AD the Chinese philosopher Chang Heng invented the earliest known seismoscope. This instrument had a circle of dragons holding balls in their mouths, surrounded by frogs at the base. The balls would drop into the mouths of frogs when an earthquake occurred. Depending on which ball was dropped, the direction of the earthquake could be determined.

C. Medieval and Renaissance Periods The nature and origin of minerals and rocks interested many ancient writers, and mineralogy may have been the first systematic study to arise in the earth sciences. The Saxon chemist Georgius Agricola wrote De Re Metallica (On the Subject of Metals) following early work by both the Islam natural philosopher Avicenna and the German naturalist Albertus Magnus. De Re Metallica was published in 1556, a year after Agricolas death. Many consider this book to be the foundation of mineralogy, mining, and metallurgy. Medieval thought was strongly influenced by Aristotle, but science began to move in a new direction during the Renaissance Period. In the early 1600s, English natural philosopher Francis Bacon reasoned that detailed observations were required to make conclusions. Around this time French philosopher Ren Descartes argued for a new, rational system of thought. Most natural philosophers, or scientists, in this era studied many aspects of philosophy and science, not focusing on geology alone. Studies of the earth during this time can be placed in three categories. The first, cosmology, proposed a structure of the earth and its place in the universe. As an example of a cosmology, in the early 1500s Polish astronomer Nicolaus Copernicus proposed that the earth was a satellite in a sun-centered system. The second category, cosmogony, concerned the origin of the earth and the solar system. The Saxon mathematician and natural philosopher Gottfried Wilhelm, Baron von Leibniz, in a cosmogony, described an initially molten earth, with a crust that cooled and broke up, forming mountains and valleys. The third category of study was in the tradition of Francis Bacon, and it involved detailed observations of rocks and related features. English scientist Robert Hooke and Danish anatomist and geologist Nicolaus Steno (Niels Stenson) both made observations in the 17th century of fossils and studied other geologic topics as well. In the 17th century, mineralogy also continued as an important field, both in theory and in practical matters, for example, with the work of German chemist J. J. Becher and Irish natural philosopher Robert Boyle.

D. Geology in the 18th and 19th Centuries By the 18th century, geological study began to emerge as a separate field. Italian mining geologist Giovanni Arduino, Prussian chemist and mineralogist Johan Gottlob Lehmann, and Swedish chemist Torbern Bergman all developed ways to categorize the layers of rocks on the earth's surface. The German physician Georg Fuchsel defined the concept of a geologic formationa distinctly mappable body of rocks. The German scientist Abraham Gottlob Werner called himself a geognost (a knower of the earth). He used these categorizations to develop a theory that the earth's layers had precipitated from a universal ocean. Werner's system was very influential, and his followers were known as Neptunists. This system suggested that even basalt and granite were precipitated from water. Others, such as English naturalists James Hutton and John Playfair, argued that basalt and granite were igneous rocks, solidified from molten materials, such as lava and magma. The group that held this belief became known as Volcanists or Plutonists. By the early 19th century, many people were studying geologic topics, although the term geologist was not yet in general use. Scientists, such as Scottish geologist Charles Lyell, and French geologist Louis Constant Prevost, wanted to establish geology as a rational scientific field, like chemistry or physics. They found this goal to be a challenge in two important ways. First, some people wanted to reconcile geology with the account of creation in Genesis (a book of the Old Testament) or wanted to use supernatural explanations for geologic features. Second, others, such as French anatomist Georges Cuvier, used catastrophes to explain much of earths history. In response to these two challenges, Lyell proposed a strict form of uniformitarianism, which assumed not only uniformity of laws but also uniformity of rates and conditions. However, assuming the uniformity of rates and conditions was incorrect, because not all processes have had constant rates throughout time. Also, the earth has had different conditions throughout geologic timethat is, the earth as a rocky planet has evolved. Although Lyell was incorrect to assume uniformity of rates and conditions, his well reasoned and very influential three-volume book, Principles of Geology, was published and revised 11 times between 1830 and 1872. Many geologists consider this book to mark the beginning of geology as a professional field. Although parts of their theories were rejected, Abraham Gottlob Werner and Georges Cuvier made important contributions to stratigraphy and historical geology. Werner's students and followers went about attempting to correlate rocks according to his system, developing the field of physical stratigraphy. Cuvier and his co-worker Alexandre Brongniart, along with English surveyor William Smith, established the principles of biostratigraphy, using fossils to establish the age of rocks and to correlate them from place to place. Later, with these established stratigraphies, geologists used fossils to reconstruct the history of life's evolution on earth.

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