Nuclear Power Reactors

The worlds first reactor: An assembly of natural

Uranium lumps imbedded in graphite, was
brought to critical in Chicago on 2
nd
December ,
1942.
Since then large number of reactors have been
designed and built for variety of purposes.
1. For the conversion of
238
U to
239
Pu
2. For propulsion of ships
3. For aircraft
4. For rockets
5. For medical irradiation
6. For nuclear research
7. For the generation of electrical power.

In all nuclear power planets,
1. the fission energy released in the reactor is
used to produce steam.
2. the steam is used to drive steam turbines.
3. the Steam turbines are coupled to generators
to produce electricity.




Fig 5.5 : Main components of a nuclear power reactor
Natural uranium has the composition
235
U 0.72% T
1/2
= 7.1 x 10
8
y
238
U 99.28% T
1/2
= 4.5 x 10
9
y

Each fission event releases about 200 MeV
and about 80% is in the form of kinetic energy
of the fission fragments (that is heat) and rest
in the form of radiation.
Uncontrolled chain reaction nuclear bomb
controlled chain reaction nuclear reactor.

Fission cross section

The energy of fission neutrons 2MeV
cross section 2 b
cross section of thermal neutrons 700b
neutrons should be slowed down
before they make collisions with
This process moderation
Fig 5.2 : Fission cross section .
Energy of neutrons in eV
o cross section (b)
10
1

0.025 10
1
10
3
10
6

10
2

10
3

U
235
92
U
235
92
Neutron Moderation

If neutrons are introduced into a non-
absorbing medium, the neutrons exchange
kinetic energy with the atoms of the medium
through elastic collisions.
As a result the neutrons lose energy through
these successive collisions.
Consider an elastic collision of a neutron with
an atom of mass A.




The energy E
1
of a neutron when scattered an
angle after a single collision is given by

n
A
n

A
Before collision after collision
E
E
1

( ) ( ) | | | o o cos 1 1
2
1
+ + =
E
E
( )
( )
2
2
1
1
+

=
A
A
o
The average energy E
1
of a neutron after a
single collision is given by





( ) o + = 1
2
/
E
E
o
o
o
log
1
1
log

+
=
f
i
E
E
n


Number of collisions (n) necessary to
moderate a neutron with an initial energy E
i
to
the energy E
f
is then given by



This is called the slowing down process or
moderation .


Nucleus Mass No. o o
a
(barns) n
H 1 0 0.332 0.50 E 18
H
2
O 0.664 19
D 2 0.111 0.00053 0.56 E 25
D
2
O 0.00133 35
He 4 0.360 <0.05 0.68 E 43
C 12 0.716 0.0034 0.88 E 114
Fe 56 0.931 2.55 0.96 E 509
Pb 82 0.952 0.170 0.97 E 751
U 238 0.983 7.59 0.99 E 2172
Following table shows o , o
a
(barns), and n(for moderation of neutrons from 2
MeV to 0.0253 eV for several nuclei.

/
E
/
E
The most effective moderator would be the
one whose atoms are just as massive as a
neutron. Therefore hydrogen is the first choice
but neutrons have a relatively high probability
( high cross section o
a
= 0.332 b) of being
absorbed by water.
n + p +
So deuterium is more useful as a moderator
since it has very low neutron absorption cross
section.
H
2
1
Thermal neutrons

If one introduces neutrons into an infinite, non-
absorbing medium, the neutrons exchange kinetic
energy with the atoms of the medium through elastic
scattering and frequently also inelastic scattering. If the
energy of the neurons is higher than the kinetic energy
of the thermal motion of the scattering atoms, they
lose energy in successive collisions, until their energies
are of the order of the thermal energies of the
scattering atoms.
Then the neutrons are in thermal equilibrium with
medium. When neutrons are in thermal equilibrium
with the medium, neutrons make collisions with the
atoms of the medium continuously.

The energy distribution of the neutrons can be
assumed to be a Maxwell distribution with
temperature of the scattering medium. The
neutrons with such an energy distribution are
called thermal neutrons.

The Maxwalian energy distribution is given by
( )
( )
kT
E
e E
kT
n
E n

=
2
1
2
3
2
t
t
where n = total density =
The most probable energy is given by
The average energy is given by



Since the velocity distribution is
given by
n(E) dE = n(v )dv

( )
}
E
dE E n
0
kT E
p 2
1
=
( ) kT dE E E n
n
E
2
3
0
1
= =
}

2
2
1
mv E =
( )
kT
m
kT
mv
e
n
v n
kT
mv
2 2
4
2
2
2

=
t
The most probable velocity is given by



Therefore corresponding energy is given by
m
kT
v
T
2
=
kT mv E
T T
= =
2
2
1
Energy value given by this is taken as the
energy of thermal neutrons which are under
thermal equilibrium in a given medium at
temperature T.

At T = 293.6
0
K (20.4
o
C) E
T
=E
0
= k T = 0.0253
eV ~ 1/40 eV,
corresponding most probable velocity v
T
= v
0

= 2200 ms
-1

Fission chain Reaction

A single fission event will produce, on the
average about 2.5 neutrons. Each of these
"second generation" neutrons is capable of
producing yet another fission event producing
still more neutrons, and so on. This process is
the chain reaction.

Schematic representation of fission
chair reaction


n
+
141
Cs
93
Rb
Such a chain reaction can be described
qualitatively in terms of the multiplication factor
(k)



If k > 1 Number of fission reactions
increases from generation to generation.
Energy released by the chain reaction increases
with time.
State of the reactor is said to be supercritical.
Start-up of a reactor.


generation preceding fissionsin of number
generation one in fissions of number
) ( factor tion multiplica = k
If k = 1 Number of fission reactions is
constant with time.
Energy releases at a constant rate.
State of the reactor is said to be critical.
Running at desired power level.
If k < 1 Number of fission reactions
decreases from generation to generation.
Energy released by the chain reaction
decreases with time.
State of the reactor is said to be sub critical.
shut down of a reactor.


Let k
1
be the rate of production of

neutrons by
fission.
k
2
be the rate of loss of neutrons as a result of
absorption.
k
3
be the rate of escape from the surface.
Then k = 1 if k
1
= k
2
+ k
3

k>1 if k
1
> k
2
+ k
3

k< 1 if k
1
< k
2
+ k
3


As expected, the production, absorption and
leakage rates depend upon the size and the
composition of a reactor.

All nuclear reactors are designed and operated to
achieve a self-sustained fission chain reaction.
The power reactors use the fission process for the
primary purpose of producing usable energy in
the form of electricity. There are two types of
reactors called
1. Thermal Reactors
2. Fast Reactors.
Basically there are two main parts in a power
reactor.
1. The core of the reactor which contains the fuel,
moderator, coolant, etc.
2. The steam cycle in which the heat produced in
the core is used to produce steam in order to turn
turbines.


The core of the reactor

Figure shows the schematic drawing of the
principal components of a core of a nuclear
reactor. The core contains fuel, moderator and
coolant. In fast breeder reactors there is no
moderator.

Control rods
Moderator
Fuel elements
Core of the reactor
Moderator
Present only in Thermal Reactors. Used to
slow down fast neutrons (~2.MeV) to thermal
energies. Nuclei of low mass numbers are
more effective. Water, Heavy water and
graphite (the common form of carbon) are
often used. Beryllium and BeO is also used
occasionally but costly.

Coolant
Coolant is used to remove heat from the core and from
other parts of the reactor where heat may be
produced.
In Thermal Reactors Water, Heavy water and various
gasses are used. In the case of water and heavy water,
they are frequently serve as the moderator also.
In Fast Reactors water and heavy water can not be
used as coolant because they tend to slow down
neutrons. Fast Reactors are cooled by liquid Sodium
which has an excellent heat transfer properties. Atomic
number 23 is not that effective in slowing down of
neutrons. Gases can also be used in Fast Reactors.

Control Rods
Control rods are movable pieces of neutron absorbing
material used to control the fission process in start-up,
running process and shut down of the reactor. The
movement of the rods in and out from the fuel
assembly affects the multiplication factor k of the
system. Withdrawal of the rods increases k while
insertion of the rods decreases k.
Material Used: These material should be strong
neutron absorbers.
Boron Steel because Boron has high absorption cross
section (o
a
= 759 b).
Hafnium of Cadmium (o
a
= 2450 b). Silver or various
alloys of Silver.
These are called cruciform rods and the shape may be
sheets or blades or crossed blades.

Nuclear Reactor Fuels

Nuclei such as
235
U that lead to fission, following the
absorption of a zero energy neutron are called fissile.
Although it is the
235
U which is said to be fissile, the
nucleus that actually fissions is
236
U. Only one fissile
nuclide (
235
U) is found in nature.
Natural uranium has 0.72 wt% of
235
U and 99.28 wt%
of
238
U with some trace of
234
U. Despite this low
concentration of
235
U it is possible to fuel certain types
of critical reactors with natural uranium. All of the early
reactors were this type.
233
U and
239
Pu (Plutonium) are
also fissile.

Naturally available
232
Th and
238
U are such that
the incident neutron must have some kinetic
energy in order to induce fission. It is clear
that fission can not occur unless the neutron
incident upon the
232
Th or
238
U has certain
amount of kinetic energy. Nuclei such as
232
Th
and
238
U are said to be fissionable but non-
fissile.

Fission neutrons are fast neutrons (high
kinetic energy). These neutrons must be
thermalized (almost zero kinetic energy) in
order for the fission to take place with fissile
nuclei such as
235
U,
233
U and
239
Pu. The
material used to thermalize fast neutrons are
called moderators. Good moderator materials
are the ones with low atomic numbers. The
reactors fueled with fissile materials such as
235
U,
233
U and
239
Pu are called Thermal
Reactors in which most of the fissions are
induced by thermal neutrons.

The reactors fueled with
232
Th and
238
U are
called Fast Reactors in which the bulk of
fissions are induced by neutrons with
sufficiently high energies. They are usually
designed to breed and are called Fast
Breeders.

Conversion and Breading

Despite the low concentration of
235
U in
natural uranium, it is possible to fuel certain
types of reactors with natural uranium. All of
the early reactors were this type. Modern
reactors require enriched uranium that is the
uranium in which the concentration of
235
U of
the natural uranium has been increased. E.g. :
3 5 wt% of
235
U.

The worlds resources of
235
U probably are not
sufficient to meet the anticipated future
demands for even less than a century.
Fortunately, it is possible to manufacture
certain fissile isotopes from abundant non-
fissile materials, a process know as
conversion.