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Measurement System
Behavior
Dynamic Characteristics
Dynamic characteristics tell us about how well a sensor
responds to changes in its input. For dynamic signals, the sensor or
the measurement system must be able to respond fast enough to keep
up with the input signals.
The solution yocf is obtained by calculating the n roots of the algebraic characteristic
equation
Characteristic equation an D n + an −1 D n −1 + ... + a1 D + a0 = 0
Complementary-function solution:
Important Notes
All the a’s and b’s other than a0 and b0 are zero.
xm
x
V = Vr ⋅ here, K = Vr / xm
Vr + xm
y=V Where 0 ≤ x ≤ xm and Vr is a reference voltage
x=0 -
yocf yopi
Transient Steady state
response response
U(t)
1.0 1.0
Output Signal, (y(t)-y0)/(KA-y0)
y (t ) − KA
.8 .8 = e −t / τ
y (0) − KA
Error fraction, em
.6 0.632 .6
y (t ) − y 0
.4 = 1 − e −t /τ .4
KA − y0 0.368
.2 .2
0.0 0.0
0 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 3 4 5
t/ t/
Non-dimensional step response of first-order instrument
Determination of Time constant
y (t ) − KA t
em = = e −t /τ ln em = 2.3 log em = −
y (0) − KA τ
1
y (t ) − KA
0.368 = e −t / τ
y (0) − KA
Error fraction,em
.1
Slope = -1/τ
.01
.001
0 1 2 3 4 5
t
First-Order Systems: Ramp Response
Assume that at initial condition, both y and x = 0, at time = 0, the input quantity
start to change at a constant rate q is Thus, we have
0 t≤0
x(t ) =
q is t t > 0
Therefore dy (t )
τ + y (t ) = Kq is tU (t )
dt
y (t )
Measurement error em = x(t ) − = −q isτe −t /τ + q isτ
K
Transient Steady
error state error
First-Order Instrument: Ramp Response
10
6
Steady state
time lag = τ
4
Steady state
2 error = q isτ
0
0 2 4 6 8 10
t/
φ (ω ) = − tan −1 ωτ
Where B(ω) = amplitude of the steady state response and φ(ω) = phase shift
First-Order Instrument: Frequency Response
B 1
M (ω ) = =
KA 1 + ( ωτ ) 2 1/ 2 [ ]
1
The amplitude ratio M (ω ) = The phase angle is φ (ω ) = − tan −1 (ωτ )
(ωτ ) 2 + 1
1.2 Dynamic error 0
-10
1.0 0
-20
.8 -30
Decibels (dB)
-2
-3 dB
0.707 -40
.6 -4
-50
-6
.4 -8 -60
-10 -70
.2 Cutoff frequency -80
-20
0.0 -90
.01 .1 1 10 100 .01 .1 1 10 100
Frequency response of the first order system
Frequency Response describe how the ratio of output and input changes
with the input frequency. (sinusoidal input)
Bandwidth the frequency band over which M(ω) ≥ 0.707 (-3 dB in decibel unit)
Cutoff frequency: the frequency at which the system response has fallen to
0.707 (-3 dB) of the stable low frequency.
0.35
tr ≈
fc
First-Order Systems: Frequency Response
Ex: Inadequate frequency response
Suppose we want to measure
x(t ) = sin 2t + 0.3 sin 20t
x(t) With a first-order instrument whose τ is 0.2 s and
static sensitivity K
Superposition concept:
K
For ω = 2 rad/s: B(2 rad/s) = ∠ − 21.8o = 0.93K∠ − 21.8o
0.16 + 1
K
y(t)/K For ω = 20 rad/s: B(20 rad/s) = ∠ − 76 o = 0.24 K∠ − 76o
16 + 1
1
From the condition |Dynamic error| < 5%, it implies that 0 . 95 ≤ ≤ 1.05
ω τ +1
2 2
But for the first order system, the term 1 / ω 2τ 2 + 1 can not be greater than 1 so that the
constrain becomes 1
0.95 ≤ ≤1
ω τ +1
2 2
2
d y (t ) dy (t ) D 2 2ζ
a2 + a + a0 y (t ) = b0 x(t ) 2 + D + 1 y (t ) = Kx (t )
dt 2 1
dt ωn ωn
1 d 2 y (t ) 2ζ dy (t )
+ + y (t ) = Kx (t )
ωn dt
2 2
ωn dt
−ζ + ζ 2 −1 ω t −ζ − ζ 2 −1 ω t
Overdamped (ζ > 1): yoc (t ) = C1e n
+ C2 e n
( )
H
L
S1, 2 = −ζω n ± ωn ζ 2 − 1 S1, 2 = − ζ ± ζ 2 − 1 ω n
= σ ± jω d
H
L
−σt S1, 2 = −ωn
Ae
yt
t
ζ =1
sin(ωd t + φ )
ζ >1
t
Second-order Systems
1 d 2 y 2ζ dy D 2 2ζ
For a step input x(t) + + y = KAU (t ) 2 + D + 1 y (t ) = KAU (t )
ωn dt ωn dt ωn ωn
2 2
y (t )
Critically damped (ζ = 1): = −(1 + ωnt )e −ωnt + 1
KA
.5
1.0
Practical systems use 0.6< ζ <0.8
2.0
0.0
0 2 4 6 8 10
nt
Non-dimensional step response of second-order instrument
Dynamic Characteristics
1.4
overshoot
1.2
Output signal, y(t)/KA
1.0 100% ± 5%
.8
.6
.4
settling
time
.2
rise time
0.0
0 5 10 15 20
Time, t (s)
Typical response of the 2nd order system
Second-order System: Ramp Response
1 d 2 y 2ζ dy
For a ramp input x(t ) = q is tU (t ) + + y = Kq is tU (t )
ωn dt
2 2
ωn dt
y (t ) 2ζq is 2ζ 2 − 1 − 2ζ ζ 2 − 1 −ζ − ζ 2 −1 ω n t
= q is t − 1 + e
Overdamped: K ωn
4ζ ζ 2 − 1
− 2ζ 2 + 1 − 2ζ ζ 2 − 1 −ζ + ζ 2 −1 ω t
+ e n
4ζ ζ − 1 2
y (t ) 2q ω n t −ω n t
Critically damped: = q is t − is 1 − (1 + )e
K ωn 1
Underdamped:
y (t )
K
= q is t −
2ζq is
ωn
1 −
e −ζω nt
2ζ 1 − ζ 2
(
sin 1 − ζ 2 ωn t + φ )
φ = tan
2ζ 1 − ζ 2
−1
2ζ 2 − 1
Second-order Instrument: Step Response
2q isζ
Steady state error =
10 ωn
8 Steady
τ state 2ζ
Output signal, y(t)/K Ramp input time lag =
ωn
6
4 ζ = 0.3
0.6
2 1.0
2.0
0
0 2 4 6 8 10
Time, t (s)
KA 2ζ
B (ω ) = φ (ω ) = − tan −1
{[1 − (ω / ω ) ] + ( 2ζω / ω ) }
n
2 2
n
2
1/ 2
ω / ωn − ωn / ω
Where B(ω) = amplitude of the steady state response and φ(ω) = phase shift
B 1
M (ω ) = =
{[ ]
KA 1 − ( ω / ω ) 2 2 + ( 2ζω / ω ) 2 1/ 2
n n }
Second-order Instrument: Frequency Response
1 2ζ
M (ω ) = φ (ω ) = − tan −1
{[1 − (ω / ω ) ] + ( 2ζω / ω ) }
n
2 2
n
2
1/ 2
ω / ωn − ωn / ω
0
ζ0 = 0.1
2.0 6 -20
ζ = 0.1 0.3
-40 0.5
1.5 -60
3
Decibel (dB)
1.0
0.5
-80
1.0 0 -100 2.0
-3 -120
1.0
.5 -6 -140
-10
2.0 -15 -160
0.0 -180
.01 .1 1 10 100 .01 .1 1 10 100
n n
Magnitude and Phase plot of second-order Instrument
Second-order Systems
For overdamped (ζ >1) or critical damped (ζ = 1), there is neither overshoot nor steady-
state dynamic error in the response.
In an underdameped system (ζ < 1) the steady-state dynamic error is zero, but the speed
and overshoot in the transient are related.
1.4
arctan(−ω d / δ ) overshoot Td
Rise time: tr =
ωd 1.2
o
π .8
Peak time: tp =
ωd peak
.6 time
Resonance
ω r = ω n 1 − 2ζ 2 .4
frequency: settling
Resonance 1 time
Mr = .2
amplitude: 2ζ 1 − ζ 2
rise time
0.0
0 5 10 15 20
where δ =ζω n , ω d = ω n 1 − ζ 2 , and φ = arcsin( 1 − ζ 2 ) Time, t (s)
Dynamic Characteristics
Speed of response: indicates how fast the sensor (measurement system) reacts
to changes in the input variable. (Step input)
Rise time: the length of time it takes the output to reach 10 to 90% of full response
when a step is applied to the input
Time constant: (1st order system) the time for the output to change by 63.2% of its
maximum possible change.
Settling time: the time it takes from the application of the input step until the output
has settled within a specific band of the final value.
Dead time: the length of time from the application of a step change at the input of
the sensor until the output begins to change