Diffraction: single slit

How can we explain the pattern from light going through a single slit?
screen

x L

Diffraction: single slit

If we break up the single slit into a top half and a bottom half, then we can consider the interference between the two halves.
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x L

Diffraction: single slit

The path difference between the top half and the bottom half must be l/2 to get a minimum.
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Diffraction: single slit

This is just like the double slit case, except the distance between the slits is w/2, and this is the case for minimum: (w/2) sin(q) = l/2
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Diffraction: single slit

In fact, we can break the beam up into 2n pieces since pieces will cancel in pairs. This leads to: (w/2n) sin(qn) = l/2 , or w sin(qn) = nl for MINIMUM.
w

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Diffraction: single slit

REVIEW: For double (and multiple) slits: nl = d sin(qn) for MAXIMUM (for ALL n) For single slit: nl = w sin(qn) for MINIMUM (for all n EXCEPT 0)

Diffraction: single slit

NOTES: For double slit, bright spots are equally separated. For single slit, central bright spot is larger because n=0 is NOT a dark spot. To have an appreciable q, d and w must be about the same size as & a little larger than l. Recall that for small angles, sin(q) = tan(q) = x/L

Diffraction: circular opening

If instead of a single SLIT, we have a CIRCULAR opening, the change in geometry makes: the single slit pattern into a series of rings; and the formula to be: 1.22 nl = D sin(qn) CH 5-4 shows the rings in several diagrams and the use of this equation.

Diffraction: circular opening

Since the light seems to act like a wave and spreads out behind a circular opening, and since the eye (and a camera and a telescope and a microscope, etc.) has a circular opening, the light from two closely spaced objects will tend to overlap. This will hamper our ability to resolve the light (that is, it will hamper our ability to see clearly).

Diffraction: circular opening

How close can two points of light be to still be resolved as two distinct light points instead of one? One standard, called the Rayleigh Criterion, is that the lights can just be resolved when the angle of separation is the same as the angle of the first dark ring of the diffraction pattern of one of the points: qlimit = q1 from 1.22 * l = D sin(q1) .

Rayleigh Criterion: a picture

The lens will focus the light to a fuzzy DOT rather than a true point.
D
lens

Rayleigh Criterion: a picture

The Rayleigh minimum angle, qlimit = sin-1(1.22 l/D) = x / s.
D
lens x

Rayleigh Criterion: a picture

If a second point of light makes an angle of qlimit with the first point, then it can just be resolved. lens
D
x x

Rayleigh Criterion: a picture

In this case: qlimit = sin-1(1.22 l/D) = x/s = x/s .
D
x lens x

Rayleigh Criterion: an example

Consider the (ideal) resolving ability of the eye Estimate D, the diameter of the pupil Use l = 550 nm (middle of visible spectrum) Now calculate the minimum angle the eye can resolve. Now calculate how far apart two points of light can be if they are 5 meters away.

Rayleigh Criterion: an example

with D = 5 mm and l = 550 nm, qlimit = sin-1 (1.22 x 5.5 x 10-7 m/.005 m) = 7.7 x 10-3 degrees = .46 arc minutes so x/L = tan(qlimit), and x = 5m * tan(7.7 x 10-3 degrees) = .67 mm

Rayleigh Criterion: an example

Estimate how far it is from the lens of the eye to the retinal cells on the back of the eye. With your same D and l (and so same qlimit), now calculate how far the centers of the two dots of light on the retina are. How does this distance compare to the distance between retinal cells (approx. diameter of the cells)?

Rayleigh Criterion: an example

L = 2 cm (estimation of distance from lens to
retinal cells) from previous part, qlimit = 7.7 x 10-3 degrees

so x = 2 cm * tan(7.7 x 10-3 degrees) = 2.7 mm .

Limits on Resolution:
Imperfections in the eye (correctable with glasses) Rayleigh Criterion due to wavelength of visible light Graininess of retinal cells

Limits on Resolution: further examples

hawk eyes and owl eyes cameras:
lenses (focal lengths, diameters) films (speed and graininess) shutter speeds and f-stops Amt of light a D2 t f-stop = f/D f-stops & resolution: resolution depends on D

Limits on Resolution: further examples

1.22 n l = D sin(qn) where q1 = qlimit microscopes: smallest size = l = .5 mm
can easily see .5 mm, so M-max = 1000 can reduce l by immersing in oil, use blue light

Limits on Resolution: further examples

Light from far away is almost parallel.
eyepiece objective lens

fobj

feye

Limits on Resolution: further examples

The telescope collects and concentrates light
eyepiece objective lens

fobj

feye

Limits on Resolution: further examples

Light coming in at an angle, qin is magnified.
eyepiece objective lens

fobj

feye

Limits on Resolution: further examples

qin = x/fo, qout = x/fe; M = qout/qin = fo/fe
eyepiece objective lens

fobj

feye

Limits on Resolution: further examples

telescopes
magnification: M = qout/qin = fo /fe light gathering: Amt a D2 resolution: 1.22 l = D sin(qlimit) so qin = qlimit and qout = 5 arc minutes so qlimit a 1/D implies Museful = 60 * D where D is in inches surface must be smooth on order of l

Limits on Resolution: Telescope

Mmax useful = qout/qin = qeye/qlimit = 5 arc min / (1.22 * l / D) radians = (5/60)*(p/180) / (1.22 * 5.5 x 10-7 m / D) = (2167 / m) * D * (1 m / 100 cm) * (2.54 cm / 1 in) = (55 / in) * D

Limits on Resolution: Telescope Example

What diameter telescope would you need to read letters the size of license plate numbers from a spy satellite?

Limits on Resolution: Telescope Example

need to resolve an x size of about 1 cm s is on order of 100 miles or 150 km qlimit then must be (in radians) = 1 cm / 150 km = 7 x 10-8 qlimit = 1.22 x 5.5 x 10-7 m / D = 7 x 10-8 so D = 10 m (Hubble has a 2.4 m diameter)

Limits on Resolution: further examples

other types of light
x-ray diffraction (use atoms as slits) IR radio & microwave

surface must be smooth on order of l

Polarization
Experiment with polarizers Particle Prediction? Wave Prediction?
Electric Field is a vector: 3 directions Parallel to ray (longitudinal)
Maxwells Equations forbid longitudinal

Two Perpendicular (transverse)

Polarization: Wave Theory

#1 Polarization by absorption (Light is coming out toward you)
no light gets through

unpolarized

polarizer only lets vertical component through

polarized light

polarizer only lets horizontal component through

Polarization: Wave Theory

Three polarizers in series:

Sailboat analogy: North wind

sail

force on sail

boat goes along direction of keel

Polarization: Wave Theory

#2 Polarization by reflection
Brewster Angle: when qrefracted + qreflected = 90o Sunglasses and reflected glare
incident ray vertical horizontal surface vertical can be transmitted refracted ray reflected ray no problem with horizontal almost no vertical since vertical is essentially longitudinal now

Polarization: Wave Theory

#3 Polarization by double refraction
different ns in different directions due to different bonding

#4 Polarization by scattering