CHAPTER 2:

DIRECT CURRENT (DC)

CIRCUITS

(METHODS OF ANALYSIS)

CHAPTER 2 1
NODAL ANALYSIS

 There is another method to solve for currents and

voltages.
– Easier
– More methodical
– Still based on Ohm’s law, KVL & KCL

 The methods are the nodal and mesh analysis.

 Nodal analysis is based on the KCL.

 Mesh analysis is based on the KVL.

 Here, we will discuss the nodal analysis first.

CHAPTER 2 2
NODAL ANALYSIS WITHOUT VOLTAGE SOURCE

 Analyze the circuit using node voltages as

the circuit variables.

 The node voltages is chosen instead of the

elements voltages.

 To simplify matters, it is first assumed

that the circuits do not contain voltage
sources.

CHAPTER 2 3
 NODAL ANALYSIS WITHOUT VOLTAGE SOURCE contd.

 Steps to determine node voltages:

– Select a node as a reference node – This
reference node also called the ground, have
zero potential. We use symbol fig3.1(b).

CHAPTER 2 4
 NODAL ANALYSIS WITHOUT VOLTAGE SOURCE contd.

CHAPTER 2 5
 NODAL ANALYSIS WITHOUT VOLTAGE SOURCE contd.

– The other node (nonreference nodes) will be

assigned as v1, v2,....

CHAPTER 2 6
 NODAL ANALYSIS WITHOUT VOLTAGE SOURCE contd.

 Apply KCL to each of the nonreference node.

At node 1:
I1 = I2 + i1 +i2

At node 2:
I2 + i2 = i3

CHAPTER 2 7
 NODAL ANALYSIS WITHOUT VOLTAGE SOURCE contd.

– Apply the Ohm’s law to express the

unknown current i1 , i2 and i3 in terms
of node voltages.

v higher  v lower
i
R

Note: Current flows from a higher potential

(positive terminal) to a lower potential
(negative terminal) in resistor.

CHAPTER 2 8
 NODAL ANALYSIS WITHOUT VOLTAGE SOURCE contd.

v1  0 v1  v 2
i1  i2 
R1 R2

v2  0
i3 
R3

v1 v1  v 2 v1  v 2 v 2
I1  I2   I2  
R1 R2 R2 R3

CHAPTER 2 9
 NODAL ANALYSIS WITHOUT VOLTAGE SOURCE contd.

1) Solve the simultaneous equation

using any standard method.

Note: For 2 simultaneous equations, it can be

solved using either eliminating/substituting or
matrix method. But for 3 equations matrix
method is recommended.

CHAPTER 2 10
EXAMPLE

1) Obtain the node voltage.

CHAPTER 2 11
 Select a node as a reference node
 The other node (nonreference nodes) will be
assigned as v1, v2,....
3) Apply KCL to each of the nonreference node.

 At node 1:
i1 – i2 – i3 = 0
i1 = i2 + i3

 At node 2:
i2 + i4 – i1 – i5 = 0
i2 + i4 = i1 + i5

(2.8)
CHAPTER 2 12
1) Express the currents in term of node voltages.

v1  v 2 v1  0 v2  0
i2  i3  i5 
4 2 6

substitute the above into eq 2.8

v1  v 2 v1
5  (2.9)
4 2

v1  v 2 v2
 10  5  (2.10)
4 6

CHAPTER 2 13
 Multiplying eq 2.9 with 4 and eq 2.10 with 12

3v1  v 2  20 (2.11)
3v1  5v 2  60 (2.12)

7) Solve both of the simultaneous equations.

Method 1: Using elimination technique:

Add both of the equations

4v 2  80  v 2  20V
CHAPTER 2 14
 Substitute into eq 2.11

3v1  20  20  v1  13.3333V

Method 2: Cramer’s rule

put eq 2.11 and 2.12 into matrix form

 3 1  v1   20 
 3 5   v    60 
   2  

CHAPTER 2 15
 determinant of the matrix

3 1
  15  3  12
3 5

obtain v1 and v2

20 1
1 60 5 100  60
v1     13.3333V
 12 12

CHAPTER 2 16
 3 20
2 3 60 180  60
v2     20V
 12 12

CHAPTER 2 17
 EXAMPLE contd.

2) Obtain the node voltages.

Answer: v1 = -2V ; v2 = -14V

CHAPTER 2 18
 Review of steps for nodal analysis
without voltage sources:

 Select a node as a reference node.

 The other node (nonreference nodes) will be
assigned as v1, v2,....
5) Apply KCL to each of the nonreference node.
6) Express the currents in term of node voltages.
v higher  v lower
i
R

10) Solve both of the simultaneous equations.

CHAPTER 2 19
NODAL ANALYSIS WITH VOLTAGE SOURCES

 Case 1:
If a voltage source is connected between the reference
node and a nonreference node. The voltage at the
nonreference node equal to the voltage source.

v1  10V

CHAPTER 2 20
 NODAL ANALYSIS WITH VOLTAGE SOURCES contd.

 Case 2:
If the voltage source (dependent or independent)
is connected between two nonreference nodes,
the two nonreference nodes form a generalized
node or supernode.

CHAPTER 2 21
 NODAL ANALYSIS WITH VOLTAGE SOURCES contd.

Note:
– A supernode is formed by enclosing a
(dependent or independent) voltage source
connected between two nonreference nodes
and any elements connected in parallel with it.

CHAPTER 2 22
 NODAL ANALYSIS WITH VOLTAGE SOURCES contd.

– A supernode requires the applications of both

KCL and KVL.
– A supernode has no voltage of its own.
– A supernode can be assumed as one big node.

CHAPTER 2 23
 NODAL ANALYSIS WITH VOLTAGE SOURCES contd.

 Steps for nodal analysis with voltage sources:

 Select a node as a reference node.
 Assign the other nodes (nonreference nodes) as
v1, v2,.... and identify the supernode.
 Apply KCL to each of the nonreference node and
the supernode.

Note: For supernode, apply

the KCL around the
supernode. Assume the
supernode as one big node.

CHAPTER 2 24
 NODAL ANALYSIS WITH VOLTAGE SOURCES contd.

1) Express the currents in term of node voltages.

v higher  v lower
i
R
 Apply KVL around the supernode.

2  v 2  v 1  0

13) Solve both of the simultaneous equations.

CHAPTER 2 25
EXAMPLE

1) Obtain the node voltages.

Answer: v1 = -7.3333V ; v2 = -5.3333V

CHAPTER 2 26
 EXAMPLE contd.

2) Calculate i1 and Vx

Answer: v1 = 11V; vX = 8V; i1 = -1.5mA

CHAPTER 2 27
MESH ANALYSIS WITHOUT CURRENT SOURCE

 Mesh analysis use the mesh currents as

the circuit variables.

 Recall: nodal analysis use the node

voltages as the circuit variables.

 Recall: a loop is a closed path with no

node passed more than once.

 A mesh is a loop that does not contain any

other loop within it.
CHAPTER 2 28
 MESH ANALYSIS WITHOUT CURRENT SOURCE contd.
 Recall: nodal analysis applies KCL to find
unknown voltages.

 Mesh analysis applies KVL to find unknown

currents.

abefa & bcdeb are

meshes.
abcdefa is not a
mesh.

CHAPTER 2 29
 MESH ANALYSIS WITHOUT CURRENT SOURCE contd.
 The current through a mesh is known as mesh
current.

 First, the analysis will concentrate on circuit

with no current source.

 Steps to determine mesh currents:

– Assign mesh currents i1, i2,…,in to the n meshes. The
flow of the mesh currents is conventionally assume in
clockwise direction.
– Determine the polarity & the direction of current flow
through each element.
– Apply KCL for each node in term of mesh current.
– Apply KVL to each of the n meshes. Use Ohm’s law to
express the voltages in terms of the mesh currents.
– Solve the resulting n simultaneous equations to get
the mesh currents.

CHAPTER 2 30
 MESH ANALYSIS WITHOUT CURRENT SOURCE contd.

 Refer to the above figure:

– Assign the mesh currents: i1 & i2

– Determine the polarity & the direction of current.

NOTE: let the direction of current at the outside branch =

direction of the mesh current.
CHAPTER 2 31
 MESH ANALYSIS WITHOUT CURRENT SOURCE contd.

1. Apply KCL.

I3  I1  I2
since I1 = i1 & I2 = i2

I3  i1  i 2
thus

note: I for branch current, i for mesh current.

10. Apply KVL to each meshes:

 Mesh1
V1  R1i1  R3 (i1  i 2 )  0
CHAPTER 2 32
 MESH ANALYSIS WITHOUT CURRENT SOURCE contd.

or  R1  R3  i1  R3i 2  V1 (2.13)

 Mesh 2

V2  R2 i 2  R3 (i1  i 2 )  0

or R3 i1   R2  R3  i 2  V2 (2.14)

– Solve the resulting n simultaneous equations

 R1  R3 R3   i1   V1 
 R R2  R3   i    V 
 3  2  2

CHAPTER 2 33
EXAMPLE

Find the branch current I1, I2 & I3 using mesh

analysis.

CHAPTER 2 34
  Assign the mesh currents: i1 & i2

– Determine the polarity & the direction of

current.

CHAPTER 2 35
1. Apply KCL.
I3  I1  I2
since I1 = i1 & I2 = i2

I3  i1  i 2
thus

2. Apply KVL to each meshes:

• For mesh 1:
15  5i1  10(i1  i 2 )  10  0

3i1  2i 2  1
(2.15)

CHAPTER 2 36
 • For mesh 2:
6i 2  4i 2  10(i1  i 2 )  10  0

i1  2i 2  1 (2.16)

 Solve the resulting n simultaneous equations.

Thus,

I1 = i1 = 1A

& I2 = i2 = 1A

CHAPTER 2 37
MESH ANALYSIS WITH CURRENT SOURCE

 There are two cases:

– CASE 1: When the current source exist only in one mesh

CHAPTER 2 38
 MESH ANALYSIS WITH CURRENT SOURCE contd.

set the value of i2 = -5A and write a mesh equation for the
other mesh in the usual way.

10  4i1  6(i1  i 2 )  0  i1  2 A

– CASE 2: When the current source exist between two

meshes.

CHAPTER 2 39
 MESH ANALYSIS WITH CURRENT SOURCE contd.

have to create a supermesh by excluding the current

source and any elements connected in series with it.

NOTE: A supermesh results when two meshes have a

(dependent or independent) current source in common.

CHAPTER 2 40
 MESH ANALYSIS WITH CURRENT SOURCE contd.
 Applying KVL to the supermesh.
20  6i1  10i 2  4i 2  0

6i1  14i 2  20 (2.17)

 Apply KCL:
i 2  i1  6 (2.18)

Solving equation 2.17 & 2.18 gives

I1 = i1 = -3.2A & I2 = i2 = 2.8A

CHAPTER 2 41
SUPERPOSITION

 The superposition principle states that the voltage

across (or current through) an element in a linear
circuit is the algebraic sum of the voltage across
(or current through) that element due to each
independent source acting alone.

 To apply the principle, two things should keep in

mind:
– Consider only one independent source at a time while all
other independent sources are turned off. This implies
that replacing every voltage source by 0V (or short
circuit) and every current source by 0A (or an open
circuit).

CHAPTER 2 42
 SUPERPOSITION contd.

– Dependent sources are left intact because they are

controlled by circuit variables.

 Steps to apply superposition principle:

1. Turn off all independent sources except one source.
Find the output (voltage or current) due to that active
source using the techniques previously covered.
2. Repeat step 1 for each of the other independent
sources.
3. Find the total contribution by adding algebraically all
the contributions due to the independent sources.

 Disadvantage: may involve more work but help

reduce a complex circuit to simpler circuits.
CHAPTER 2 43
EXAMPLE

Use the superposition theorem to find v in the

circuit below.

CHAPTER 2 44
Since there are two sources, let

v = v1 + v2
where
v1 = due to the 6V voltage source
v2 = due to the 3A current source

To obtain v1, set the current source to zero (open

circuit)

CHAPTER 2 45
Applying KVL to the loop gives,

12i1 – 6 = 0 => i1 = 0.5A

Thus, v1 = 4i1 = 2V

To obtain v2, set the voltage source to zero (short

circuit).

CHAPTER 2 46
Using current division,
8
i3   3   2A
48

Hence, v2 = 4i3 = 8V

Thus, v = v1 + v2 = 2 +8 = 10V

CHAPTER 2 47