Sensors

Definition of Sensor & Transducer

Sensor is an element that senses the variation in

input energy to produce a variation in another form of energy Transducer uses transduction principle to convert specified measurand in to useful output A Piezo-electric crystal is called a sensor If appropriate electrodes and I/O mechanisms are attached to it,it becomes a transducer

Classification Based on Criteria

Transduction Principle using Physical or
Chemical Effects Primary Input Quantity (Measurand) Material & Technology Application Property

Application Based Classification

Property Based Classification

Flow Level Temperature Pressure Proximity and displacement Acceleration Image Gas and chemical sensors Bio sensors

Emerging Sensor Technologies

Static Characteristics
Accuracy: The agreement between the actual
value and the measured value Resolution: The change in measured variable to which the sensor will respond Repeatability: Variation of sensor measurements when the same quantity is measured several times Range: Upper and lower limits of the variable that can be measured Sensitivity and Linearity Hysterisis and dead Band Output impedance, isolation and grounding

Industrial Sensors
Proximity
Mechanical Optical Inductive/Capacitive Potentiometer LVDT Encoders Tachogenerator

Position/Velocity

Force/Pressure Vibration/acceleration

Proximity Sensors
Widely used in general industrial automation
Conveyor lines (counting,jam detection, etc Machine tools (safety interlock, sequencing) Usually digital (on/off) sensors detecting the presence or absence of an object Consist of: Sensor head: optical, inductive, capacitive Detector circuit Amplifier Output circuit: TTL, solid state relay

Mechanical Proximity Switches

Essentially a mechanical switch
On/off operation only Two general modes
Normally Open (NO) Normally Closed (NC) Come in a wide variety of mechanical forms For a wide range of uses

Example Mechanical Proximity Switches

When to Use Mechanical Proximity Switches

Where physical contact is possible Where definitive position is required In operation-critical or safety-critical situations Where environment conditions preclude the use of optical or inductive sensors

Applications and Use of Mechanical Proximity Switches

Easy to integrate into machinery of all types Requires contact (thus wear) Range of voltages: DC 0-1000V, AC, etc. Very robust (explosion proof if required) Usually used as: Limit switch Presence/absence indicator Door closed/open

Optical Proximity Sensors

Consist of a light source (LED) and light detector (phototransistor) Modulation of signal to minimize ambient lighting
conditions Various models: 12-30V DC, 24-240V AC, power Output: TTL 5V, Solid-state relay, etc.

Operational Modes
Through Beam:
Long range (20m) Alignment is critical ! Retro-reflective Range 1-3m Popular and cheap Diffuse-reflective Range 12-300mm Cheap and easy to use

Example Optical Proximity I

Optical Fiber Delivery System

Example Optical Proximity II

When to use an Optical Proximity Sensor

Pros
Non-contact, no moving parts, small. Fast switching, no switch bounce. Insensitive to vibration and shock Many configurations available Cons Alignment always required Can be blinded by ambient light conditions (welding for example) Requires clean, dust and water free, environment

Applications of Optical Proximity Sensors

Stack height control/box counting Fluid level control (filling and clarity) Breakage and jam detection And many others

Other Optical Devices

Ultrasonic Proximity Sensors

Use sound pulses Measures amplitude

and time of flight Range provides more than on/off information Frequencies 40KHz2MHz

When to use Ultrasonic Sensors

Provide range data directly: Level monitoring of solid and liquids Approach warning (collisions) Can (usually) work in heavy dust and water Ambient noise is potentially an issue

Example Applications

Inductive and Capacitive Proximity Sensors

Inductive sensors use change in local
magnetic field to detect presence of metal target Capacitive Sensors use change in local capacitance caused by non-metallic objects Generally short ranges only Regarded as very robust and reliable

Example Inductive Sensors I

Example Inductive Sensors II

Example Capacitive Sensors

Position and Velocity Sensors

Position and velocity measurement is often

required in feedback loops For positioning, and velocity control Position measurement: Potentiometers LVDT Encoders Velocity Measurement: Tachometer

Potentiometers

Types of Potentiometer
Wirewound
Wiper slides along coil of Ni-chrome wire Wire tends to fail, temperature variations Cermet Wiper slides on conductive ceramic track Better than wire inmost respects Plastic film High resolution Long life and good temperature stability

Linear Potentiometers

When to use a Potentiometer

Pros
Require analog signal for control Require absolute positional information Low cost Cons Temperature and wear variations Not in dusty or wet environments

Linear Variable Differential Transformer (LVDT)

An LVDT consists of

a magnetic core that moves in a cylinder The sleeve of the cylinder contains a primary coil that is driven by an oscillating voltage The sleeve also contains two secondary coils that detect this oscillating voltage with a magnitude equal to

LVDT Signal Conditioning

Uses AC

modulation, demodulation and phase comparison Available in a single monolithic package

Example LVDTs
Free Core LVDTs for use in hostile Environments and Total emersion

Spring-loaded Standard for use In hydraulic cylinders

When to use an LVDT

High accuracy Linear operation (synchro resolver is
equivalent rotary LVDT) Harsh environment Analog position control Embedding (in cylinder for example)

HALL Effect Sensor

Crank shaft position By Hall sensor

Optical Encoders
Encoders are digital Sensors commonly used to

provide position feedback for actuators Consist of a glass or plastic disc that rotates between a light source (LED) and a pair of photo-detectors Disk is encoded with alternate light and dark sectors so pulses are produced as disk rotates

Encoder Internal Structure

Incremental Encoders
Pulses from leds are counted to provide rotary position Two detectors are used to determine direction (quadrature) Index pulse used to denote start point Otherwise pulses are not unique

Absolute Encoders
Absolute encoders
have a unique code that can be detected for every angular position Often in the form of a grey code; a binary code of minimal change Absolute encoders are much more complex and expensive than incremental encoders

Encoder processing
Need a squaring

circuit to digitise signal A counter and index monitor Generally available in monolithic form Often with algorithms for control externally programmable

When to Use an Encoder

Require accurate position
information: 10,000 line incremental 360 line absolute Digital feed-back loop Compact and reasonably rugged (not as good as inductive) Linear encoders also available

Tachometers
Measurement of rotary

speed using a DC generator Essentially a motor running in reverse Used to be common to have these attached to motors to enable direct analog feedback Much less common now with digital control (use incremental encoders)

Tacho generator for large industrial plant (GE)

Temperature Sensors

Force and Pressure

Force and Pressure generally measured

indirectly through deflection of an alternate surface Mechanism include: Physical motion and measurement using (eg) an LVDT Strain gauges (metal that changes resistance when stressed) Piezo electric materials that generate a current when deformed

LVDT Load Cell

Strain Gauge Bridge

Silicon diaphragm Strain gauge Manifold Absolute Pressure (MAP) Sensor

Example Load Cells

Subminature Load cells

Reaction torque load cell

Axial load cell

Sub-miniature Load cells

All signal conditioning and amplification integrated with the sensor

Load cell bridge structure

Piezo Load Cells

Distortion of crystal,

either quartz or BaTiO3 Used for accurate measurement of small loads Come in the form of: single axis load washers or multiple axis load washers and tables

Pressure

Pressure measured by: Pitot tube and Deformation of fixed membrane Deformation measured using same methods as for force: Spring (manometer) Piezo distortion Strain gauges

Miniature

High Temperature

Industry IP69

Acceleration
Acceleration is
also measured via the force exerted by an accelerating mass Distortion of a piezo Motion of a cantilever Strain on mass restraints Accelerometers mainly used to measure vibration
Single Axis, 10,000g

Shielded for Severe environment

EMI shielded

Tri-axial Accelerometers
Triaxial accelerometers

used in mobile systems In high-performance cars Inside rotating elements of turbines In aircraft elements Provide vibration information Provide short-term position data
Triple axis Accelerometer For racing cars

Silicon Machined Accelerometers

Used in eg air-bags

Cantilever beams

Silicon Gyroscopes
Structural
arrangement of silicon which records centrifugal acceleration and thus angular speed Use strain-gauge bridges and/or piezo structure to record deformations Multiple component elements to calibrate other accelrations

Inertial Systems
Many different types of accelerometer and

gyroscope systems Mechanical bodies, fibre optic, etc Together in an orthogonal arrangement of accelerometers and gyroscopes, these comprise an inertial measurement unit (IMU) An IMU that is used for navigation is called an inertial navigation system (INS) These are widely used in aircraft and missile navigation and guidance

INTRODUCTION TO MEMS

Terminology
MEMS (MicroElectroMechanical Systems) The extension of IC mfg. Technology to the fabrication of planar or

3D mechanical devices, which may be integrated with VLSI. MST (Micro Systems Technology) A hybrid of MEMS and other micromachining technology, generally viewed as synonymous with MEMS, but somewhat broader in scope. Nanotechnology Nano-machines achieve their functionality through direct control of atoms and molecules. Self-replication and atomic lattice control are central concepts in molecular machining NEMS (NanoElectroMechanical Systems) Nanoscale systems fabricated via top down nanofabrication methods.

Why MEMS?
Economic benefits:
- Parallel fabrication for mass production package-level integration - system-level integration - leverages IC fabrication technology Technical benefits: - manufacturing precision light weight and small size novel capabilities materials advantages

Manufacturing Scales

What are MEMS - Typically?

Small: - electro mechanical
structures consisting of components measured in micrometers

- can be easily formed into highly complex systems

What Can MEMS Do?

- sensing: acceleration, pressure, flow rate, etc... - actuating: by electric, magnetic, thermal, forces - fast: 250,000 RPM go far: >1 mm strong: >1
mN

Sense and Act on its Environment!!

Electrostatic Microactuator Pressure Sensor

What Else Can MEMS Do?

Re-direct and process light Re-direct and process fluids Can be wireless Combined with VLSI, MEMS can miniaturize entire systems!

Free-space micro-optical bench (UCLA)

Micro-fluidic mixer BSAC

Markets
Current sales: Pressure sensors, ink jet heads, accelerometers, vibrometers, displays,
biochips, optical devices Projected markets: Automotive: injector/tire pressure and temp, inertial sensors for air bag deployment, active suspension, navigation Optical: switching/routing Computer: displays, data storage, printers Biochips: blood/infusion pressure, valving, DNA multipliers, bioanalysis Smart Structures: imbedded sensors & actuators Military: smart munitions, UAVs, S&A Industrial: fluid regulation, vibration and strain sensors

Automotive applications...

Aerospace...
Aircraft, micro-satellites, space exploration

MEMS Gyroscope (Fabricated at Standard MEMS, Inc.)

Industrial...
Fluid regulation, vibration and strain sensing, environmental
monitoring

Strain/force sensor (UC Berkeley, Integrated Micro Instruments

Pressure sensor & Electronics (Fabricated at Standard MEMS, Inc.)

Consumer...
Computers, data storage, ink jet printers,
displays
Tri-color ink jet print head (Fabricated at Standard MEMS, Inc.)

MEMS AFM tip array for data storage (Carnegie Mellon University)

Communications...
Optical switching and routing, relays,
wireless communication, information systems

Digital Mirror Device (DMD) Light Switch (Texas Instruments)

Micro-Fresnel Lens (Fabricated at

Biomedical...
Biochips, blood pressure sensing, genetic analysis,
proteomics, diagnostics, drug delivery

Disposable lab on a chip.)

Microneedles

DNA Analysis chip

Smart Sensors
A sensor producing an electrical output
when combined with the interface electronic circuits is said to be an intelligent/smart sensor, if the interfacing circuits can perform Ranging Calibration Decision making for communication.

Smart sensor Block Diagram

Properties of smart sensors

Automatic ranging and calibration Auto acquisition and storage of
calibration constants Auto configuration and verification of hardware Auto correction of offsets and temperature drifts Auto linearization of non linear characteristics.

Properties of smart sensors

Self tuning control algorithms Control program may be locally stored

from a host system Control is implementable through serial bus and host system. Condition monitoring. Communication through serial bus.

Features of smart sensors

New sensing methods Improved capturing ability Digital communication. Compensating for sensor non-linearity. Permitting programmable gain. Changing sampling rate. Changing inter aliasing frequency.

Recent Trends in Sensor Technology

Conventional sensors are inappropriate for

modern precise works. Need of newer version of sensors Development of new types such as Thick film sensors Thin film sensors MEMS NEMS

Thick film sensors

Uses thick film deposition technique. Processing methods

Selection and preparation of substrate. preparation of initial coating material in paste or

pain form Pasting and painting the substrate by coating material or screen printing it. Firing the sample produced in an oxidising atmosphere.

Application of thick film sensors

For measuring
Temperature Pressure Concentration of gases. Humidity Volume Force

Thin film sensors

Technologies used to prepare thin film sensors
Thermal Evaporation Resistive heating. Electron beam heating. Sputter deposition DC with magnetron. RF with magnetron. Chemical vapour deposition. Plasma enhanced chemical vapour deposition.

MicroElectroMechnical Systems(MEMS)
Miniature devices on silicon chips. Termed as Micro-Engineering/system.
Micro-Machining and Micro-Mechanics

Micro system
Assembly whose overall dimension donot exceed 30mm.

Micro-Machining
Types
Bulk Micro-Machining. Surface Micro-Machining.

Bulk Micro-Machining
Surface Micro-Machining.
Substrate masked by SiO2 and Si3N2 used as etchant. Based on CMOS technology. Polysilicon layer is deposited on top of SiO2 and then etched.

Nano-Sensors
Enchancement of Micro-Electronics. Recent developments in Nano-Technology
Invention and production of Nano- tubes. Integration of Nano particles into gas sensors. Fabrication of photonic level band gap structure. Single electron memeory Logical elements that can operate at room temperature. Incorporation of biological motors into Non-biological environments.

FIBER OPTICS
The central part of a fiber optic system is a lighttransmitting cable containing at least one but more often a bundle of glass or plastic fibers. This is terminated at each end by a transducer. At the input end, the transducer converts the signal from the electrical form in which most signals originate into light. At the output end, the transducer converts the transmitted light back into an electrical form suitable for use by data recording, manipulation and display systems. These two transducers are often known as the transmitter and receiver respectively.

 The basis of operation of fiber optic sensors is the translation

of the physical quantity measured into a change in one or more parameters of a light beam. The light parameters that can be modulated are one or more of the following. Intensity Phase Polarization Wavelength Transmission time Fiber optic sensors usually incorporate either glass/plastic cables or all-plastic cables. Fiber optic sensors characteristically enjoy long life. Further advantages are their simplicity, low cost, small size, high reliability and capability of working in many kinds of hostile environment. Two major classes of fiber optic sensor exist, intrinsic sensors and extrinsic sensors. In intrinsic sensors, the fiber optic cable itself is the sensor, whereas in extrinsic sensors, the fiber optic cable is only used to guide light to/from a conventional sensor.

Sensor Selection Guide

Any one or several of the following

environmental factors may be important to you in selecting a sensor: Temperature range Package size Fast thermal response time Fast electrical response time Heat sinking Small thermal mass Robustness

 Compatibility with harsh environments

magnetic fields ionizing radiation ultra high vacuum (UHV) vibration/mechanical shock thermal shock temperatures above 323 K Easily measured signal Compatibility with sources of error thermal EMFs self-heating noise pickup High sensitivity and High accuracy High repeatability long and short term Low power dissipation Interchangeability Ease of use Low cost Available accessories Available instrumentation

Conclusion
Selecting the right sensor is a critical part
of the design cycle Requires an understanding of Type of motion Precision of motion Magnitude of motion Operating conditions

END OF SENSOR SLIDES