Chapter 1 The Science of Genetics

Pit Bull Tree Scientists make a pit bull tree that can defend itself in the rain forest.

 Ugly Flower Pollination Pretty flower worries that shell be pollinated by an ugly flower.

 Supermans Sons Eyes Supermans son inherited his x-ray vision and sees pink underwear.

Babys Mickey Mouse Ears Baby mouses round ears reveal mothers relationship with Mickey Mouse.

Chapter Outline
Three Great Milestones in Genetics DNA as the Genetic Material Genetics and Evolution Levels of Genetic Analysis Genetics in the World: Applications of Genetics to Human Endeavors

Three Great Milestones in Genetics

Gregor Mendel: the rules of inheritance James Watson and Francis Crick: the structure of DNA The Human Genome Project: the detailed analysis of human DNA

Mendel: Genes and the Rules of Inheritance (1866)

Geneshereditary factors responsible for traits Allelesdifferent forms of genes Rules of Inheritance
Alleles of the same gene separate during gamete formation Alleles of different genes are inherited independently

What is a Gene?
Genes are made of nucleic acids Nucleic acids are made of building blocks called nucleotides Nucleotides have three components
Sugar molecule (ribose or deoxyribose) Phosphate molecule Nitrogen-containing molecule (adenine, guanine, cytosine, thymine, uracil)

RNA is ribonucleic acid DNA is deoxyribonucleic acid

Watson and Crick: The Structure of DNA (1953)

Nucleotides are linked in a chain through sugar-phosphate interactions DNA molecules are made of two chains of nucleotides wound around each other in a helix Base pairs hold the chains together
A pairs with T G pairs with C

The Human Genome Project: Sequencing DNA and Cataloguing Genes

Genomethe collection of DNA molecules that is characteristic of an organism Genomics is the analysis of DNA sequences that make up a genome Genomics involves DNA sequencing technology, robotics, and computer science The Human Genome Project determined the sequence of nucleotides in the DNA of the human genome

A Milestone in Genetics: X174, the First DNA Genome Sequenced

X174 is a virus that has single-stranded DNA as its genetic material. Frederick Sanger sequenced the genome of X174 in 1977

Key Points
Gregor Mendel postulated the existence of particular factorsnow called genesto explain how traits are inherited. Alleles, the alternate forms of genes, account for heritable differences among individuals. James Watson and Francis Crick elucidated the structure of DNA, a macromolecule composed of two complementary chains of nucleotides.

Key Points
DNA is the hereditary material of all life forms except some types of viruses, in which RNA is the hereditary material. The Human Genome Project determined the sequence of nucleotides in the DNA of the human genome. Sequencing the DNA of a genome provides the data to identify and catalogue all the genes of an organism.

DNA as the Genetic Material

Information flows from DNA to RNA to protein. In all cellular organisms, the genetic material is DNA. The genetic material
Must be able to replicate Must contain information Must be able to change

DNA Replication

DNA Replication
Based on the complementary nature of the two strands of duplex DNA molecules. When the two parental strands are separated, the separated strands can serve as template for the synthesis of new strands. New strands are assembled by incorporating nucleotides according to base-pairing rules. At the end of replication, each template strand is paired with a newly synthesized partner strand. DNA replication is catalyzed by enzymes.

Gene Expression: Using Genetic Information

Gene Expression
During transcription, an RNA molecule is synthesized from a DNA template. This messenger RNA (mRNA) molecules contains the information needed to synthesize a polypeptide. During translation, the triplet codons in the RNA specify the incorporation of particular amino acids into a polypeptide chain.

The Proteome
Proteomethe collection of all the different proteins in an organism. Humans have between 20,000 and 25,000 genes in the genome and hundreds of thousands of proteins in the proteome. Proteomicsthe study of all the proteins in cells.

The Central Dogma of Molecular Biology

The flow of information is DNA RNA protein. Some viruses can use RNA as a template for the synthesis of DNA in reverse transcription. Many genes do not encode polypeptides; their endproducts are RNA molecules.

Mutation: Changing Genetic Information

Key Points
When DNA replicates, each strand of a duplex molecule serves as the template for the synthesis of a complementary strand. When genetic information is expressed, one strand of a genes DNA duplex is used as a template for the synthesis of a complementary strand of DNA. For most genes, RNA synthesis (transcription) generates a molecule (the RNA transcript) that becomes a messenger RNA (mRNA).

Key Points
Coded information in an mRNA is translated into a sequence of amino acids in a polypeptide. Mutations can alter the DNA sequence of a gene. The genetic variability created by mutation is the basis for biological evolution.

Genetics and Evolution

Variation in the DNA sequence makes it possible for species to evolve over time. Organisms with similar DNA sequences are descended from a common ancestor.

A phylogenetic tree
A phylogenetic tree, or phylogeny, represents the historical relationships among organisms.

Key Points
Evolution depends on the occurrence, transmission, and spread of mutant genes in groups of organisms. DNA sequence data provide a way of studying the historical process of evolution.

Still Not Convinced About Evolution?

Genetics in the World: Applications of Genetics to Human Endeavors

Genetics is relevant in many venues outside the research laboratory.

Genetics in Agriculture: Selective Breeding

Genetics in Agriculture: Genetically Modified Organisms

Genetically Modified Organisms (GMOs) are have been altered by the introduction of foreign genes.

Genetics in Medicine
Inborn Errors of Metabolism are metabolic abnormalities caused to mutant alleles. Genetic Counselors advise people about inheritance of genetic diseases. Molecular genetics
new ways to detect mutant alleles. new ways to treat diseases.

Genetics in Society
Economic impactbiotechnology industry, pharmaceutical industry. Legal impactpaternity testing, forensics, identification Philosophical impact

Key Points
Discoveries in genetics are changing procedures and practices in agriculture and medicine. Advances in genetics are raising ethical, legal, political, social, and philosophical questions.