Fundamentals of Maps

DR.Mukta Girdhar

What is a Map
Map is usually a two dimensional representation (eg a flat piece of paper) of a three dimensional object (eg the Earth) occasionally it may be a three dimensional object (eg a globe) Maps are drawn to a scale Maps generally have a reference system

Five steps fro producing Maps

Reference System:- Latitude & Longitude, Grid

Latitude
The first convention to be developed was latitude. This is based on long term astronomical observations about how the sun is perceived to move across the surface of the Earth. These observations also developed the conventions that the sun: rises in the east and sets in the west

 line around the centre of the Earth would be called the Equator. This would be numbered as zero degrees (0) of latitude. From the Equator a series of parallel lines were recognised with the most northern and southern points being called the North Pole and South Pole. These would be numbered as 90 degrees North and South respectively (90N and 90S).

Longitude
Series of radiating lines which run vertically around the Earth. They connected at both ends ie at the North Pole and the South Pole. As a result of this, a series of slices much like slices of an orange are created. These are pointed at their ends and broadest in the middle. It was agreed that a primary line of longitude should be identified and that this should be zero degrees (0) of longitude.

Add Two Together

Datum
How to transfer co-ordinate system on to the surface of the earth.

Measurement system
Measurement system which is used calculate the coordinates of points on the surface of the Earth.

Projection
which allows the coordinates which have been calculated using a measuring system, to be displayed on a flat piece of paper.

Different Earth Image

Distortions
Thedirectionbetween a feature and surrounding features Thedistancebetween a feature and surrounding features Theshapeof any feature Thesizeof any feature

Block of 1x1

Distortion

Datum
Adatumis a system which allows the location of latitudes and longitudes (and heights) to be identified onto the surface of the Earth

About the Geometry of Datums

In order to calculate where latitudes and longitudes occur on the surface of the Earth a number of fundamental geometric concepts and practices need to be applied.

The Earth as a Sphere

In this calculation the Earth is viewed as being an evenly round ball. This is called a Sphere. From an imaginary centre of the Earth, calculations are made from the centre of the Earth to the surface of the Earth.

The Earth as an Ellipsoid (or Spheroid)

However, the Earth is not evenly round - it is in fact wider around the Equator than it is between the North and South Poles. This is called an Ellipsoid (or a Spheroid).

The Earths True Shape - Its Terrain

Earth isnt just ocean (Mean Sea Level). Much of the land masses are well above the sea level (eg Mount Everest is over 8,000 metres above Mean Sea Level), while in the ocean it is well below sea level (eg the Mariana Trench is over 10,000 metres below Mean Sea Level.

The Earth as a Geoid

The Earth in reality is a very misshapen object. This is called a Geoid. The Earths Geoid is regarded as being equal to Mean Sea Level.

Relationship Between Four

Geo Centric Datum

Projection
Aprojectionis a process which uses the latitude and longitude which has already been drawn on the surface of the Earth using a datum, to then be drawn onto a flat piece of paper called a map.

Projection
Basic Type:depends on the characteristic that is preserved

Basic Technique: depends on the method used to project features onto a flat surface

Basic Projection Type

Equal-Area correctly shows thesizeof a feature

Conformal correctly shows theshapeof features (A map can not be both equalarea or conformal it can only be one; or the other; or neither.)

Equidistant correctly shows thedistance betweentwo features

True Direction correctly shows thedirection betweentwo features

Basic Projection Techniques

azimuthal the imaginary piece of paper is flat this is usually used over Polar areas

conical the imaginary piece of paper is rolled into a cone this is usually used in mid-latitude areas (approximately 20 60 North and South)

cylindrical the imaginary piece of paper is rolled into a cylinder this is usually used over Equatorial areas or for World Maps

Azimuthal
the imaginary piece of paper is flat this is usually used over Polar areas These projections: have distortions increasing away from the central point have very small distortions near the centre point (the touch point of the paper) compass direction is only correct from the centre point to another feature not between other features are not usually used near theEquator, because other projections better represent the features in this area.

Azimuthal

Circles are longitude

Conical Projections

These projections: are fan shaped when used to map large areas have distortions increasing away from the central circular line (the touch point of the paper) have very small distortions along the central circular line (the touch point of the paper) shapes are shown correctly, but size is distorted usually have lines of longitude fanning out from each other and have lines of latitude as equally spaced open concentric circles

2-D Dimension

Cylindrical / Mercator Projection

These projections usually: are rectangular or oval shaped but this projection technique is very variable in its shape have lines of longitude and latitude at right-angles to each other have distortions increasing towards away from the central circular line (the touch point of the paper) have very small distortions along the central circular line (the touch point of the paper) show shapes correctly, but size is distorted.

Psudo Cylindrical or Robinson Projection

Universal Transverse Mercator System (UTM)

In 1947 the North Atlantic Treaty Organisation (NATO) developed the Universal Transverse Mercator coordinate system (generally simply called UTM) Regular grid system which covered the entire Surface of the Earth. For low to mid-latitudes (0 to 80 North and South) the IMW established a grid system that was 6 of longitude wide and 4 of latitude high. locations, shapes and sizes and directions between all features are very accurate. Directions are not perfect.

A particular subset of the transverse Mercator is the Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM) which was adopted originally by the US Army for large-scale military maps. In the UTM system, the globe is divided into 60 zones between 84 S and 84 N, most of which are 6 wide. Each UTM zone has its own central meridian and spans 3 west and 3 east from the center of the zone. Note that the position of the cylinder developable surface is positioned at a different place around the globe for each zone. X- and Ycoordinates are in meters by convention.

 For zones in the northern hemisphere, the Xorigin is a place 500,000 m west of the central meridian, and the Y-origin is the Equator. The false easting is used to eliminate negative coordinates. For zones in the southern hemisphere, the X origin is also 500,000 m west of the central meridian, but the Y-origin is the South Pole.

How Do we Locate Other Way of Locating

A cartographer is a person who creates Maps A map on a spherical surface is called a globe

Role of Direction play in finding a location

Magnetic Compass

Directions and Landmarks alone be sufficient ?

Map Scale
2cm to 1K.M 1:10,000 Graphical or linear scale
Distance on the map =2cm =2cm

Distance on the ground =1/50,000

1km

100 000

Large scale & Small Scale

Large scale Map shows a small land area in great details Small scale map shows less details but larger area

Measuring Distances on Maps

Measuring straight lines
Mark the distance on the paper by a pencil Measure the distance between pencil marks with a scale Multiply this

Measuring curved lines

In the case of curved lines like rivers, winding roads, or railway lines, a piece of string may be used by carefully aligning it along the curved line connecting two points. The length of the string may be measured in centimeter using a scale and then converted in to distances in kilometer.

Symbology

Map Features
Point Line Polygon shape of area Text

What are countours

A contour is an imaginary lines drawn on maps joining the place that have same heights. Contours are numbered to indicate their height above sea level. On topographic maps, every fifth line is drawn by a thick line and is numbered.

Contours

Contours

Where Are we

There are many different types of maps

General Reference(sometimes called planimetric maps) Topographic Maps Thematic Navigation Charts Cadastral Maps and Plans Meteorological Map

General Reference(sometimes called planimetric maps)

These are simple maps showing important physical (natural and manmade) features in an area. They are usually easy to read and understand.

General Reference(sometimes called planimetric maps)

It is colourful cities are named major transport routes (highways and railways) are identified natural features such as rivers, lakes and mountains are named elevation is shown using a simple colour shading has themes included eg city population size

Tourist Map
It is a general reference map which has been enhanced for a specific reason that of highlighting places of interest that people might like to visit.

Street Map
The Street Map is well known to all maps. Street maps contain all the elements of a general reference map in that they are a summary of the landscape and that their primary purpose is to aid in the discovery of a location.

Thematic Maps
These are maps which depict information on a particular topic.Weather, population density and geology maps are examples of thematic maps.

Thematic Map
This map of limestone caves in Tasmania

Topographic Maps
Like the General Reference Map, Topographic Maps are a summary of the landscape and show important physical (natural and man-made) features in an area. The primary difference is that they show elevation in detail. Characteristics of topographic maps include: they show elevation using countour line It shows (roads, cities, buildings etc), but may include some thematic information such as vegetation or the boundaries of national parks they are typically produced by government agencies these are often specialist mapping agencies and may have either a civilian or defence purpose they have very good location reference systems includinglattitude and logitude, but may also havegrid lines often have additional information such as an arrow pointing toNorth

Topographic map

Cadastral Plans

Navigation Map
This includes information about the seabed depth below the surface of the water. The numbers indicate known depth for an individual spot and the dotted line is an indication of lines of equal depth - generally called bathymetric contours (or isobars) to distinguish them from land contours

Air Navigation Chart

air navigation charts are used by fast flying aircraft which can be very high above the land and have significant safety concerns when landing.

Series Maps
These maps typically have a constant scale (eg 1:100,000) and join together in a regular fashion such that a large area is continuously mapped

CONTENTS
Introduction to GIS Components of GIS GIS datasets, Spatial and Non Spatial Raster and Vector GIS functions

WHAT IS GIS?
GIS is a system of hardware, software, data and personnel to efficiently capture, store, update, manipulate, analyze and display all forms of geographically referenced information.

A geographic information system is a technology assisted by several systems for the storage, acquisition, Cartographic Displayanalysis System and Map digitizing system Database management system Image processing system Statistical analysis system Global positioning system

COMPONENTS OF GIS

Hardware Software Data People Application/ procedures

THE QUESTIONS THAT A GIS CAN ANSWER

What is at......? (Location related question ; what exists at a particular location) Where is it.....? (Conditional question ; which locations satisfy certain conditions) How has it changed........? (Trendy question ; identifies geographic occurrence or trends that have changed or in the process of changing) Which data are related ........? (Relational question : analyzes the spatial relationship between objects of geographic features) What if.......? (Model based question ; computers and displays an optimum path, a suitable land, risky area against disasters etc. based on model)

In order to meet the above requirements, the following functions are necessary for GIS data acquisition and pre-processing data base management and retrieval spatial measurement and analysis graphic output and visualization

FUCTIONS OF GIS
DATA CAPTURE: inputting geographic and tabular (attribute) data STORAGE: two basic data models for geographic data storage. Vector and raster. QUERYING :finding specific features based on the location or attribute value ANALYSIS: interaction of spatial relationship between multiple datasets DISPLAY: visualizing the geographic features using a variety of symbology OUTPUT: display results in a variety of formats, such as maps, reports and graphs.

HARDWARE & SOFTWARE

Hardware is the computer on which a GIS operates. GIS software provides the functions and tools needed to store, analyze, and display geographic information. Key software components are:-

Tools for the input and manipulation of geographic information A database management system (DBMS) Tools that support geographic query, analysis, and visualization A graphical user interface (GUI) for easy access to tools

SOFTWARES
There are many GIS software companies in the market Two types mainly Raster (Image Processing) and Vector but almost all modern GIS software are capable to handle both. Most commonly used GIS /RS Softwares ArcGIS (ESRI), MapInfo, Geomedia, Gram++, IRIDISI, ERDAS IMAGINE, ER Mapper, ENVI, ILWIS, GRASS , Q-GISetc.

DATA SETS
SPATIAL
Spatial data is represented in the form of x and y coordinates.

NON SPATIAL
Non Spatial data can be any other relevant data related to the spatial feature. Example is Demographic, socioeconomic data etc.

RASTER AND VECTOR

DATA CAPTURE
manual digitizing and scanning of analogue maps image data input (Satellite imageries/ aerial photo) Global Positioning Systems (GPS) Transfer of data from existing digital sources.

Click to edit Master title style

DATA STORAGE RASTER AND VECTOR MODELS

VECTOR DATA is captured in GIS through digitization. Mainly three types Point: (e.g. rain gauge stations, Police Stations, Fire Stations etc) Line: ( Roads, railway lines, Canals, tectonic features like faults etc) Polygons: Administrative boundaries, land use- land cover maps, water bodies, geology etc)

RASTER DATA: Scanned images Satellite data

NON SPATIAL DATA: Attribute data (manual data entry) Linking it to existing databases in Access, Oracle or SQL Server

PEOPLE
GIS technology is of limited value without people who manage the system for applying it to real world problems. Designers or programmers - To develop the system as per requirements Operators To enter and update the GIS database and maps Specialized professionals Meteorologist, urban planners, geologists, emergency managers, agronomists etc.

PROCEDURES
Successful GIS operates as per requirements of the users. Standard procedures common to all. Can be customized as per their individual needs and requirements. e.g. HAZUS, RADIUS,HEC RAS, SHAKE etc

THANKS