Capacitance

18. Capacitance Content 18.1 Capacitors and capacitance 18.2 Energy stored in a capacitor Learning Outcomes Candidates should be able to: (a) show an understanding of the function of capacitors in simple circuits. (b) define capacitance and the farad. (c) recall and solve problems using C = Q/V. (d) derive, using the formula C = Q/V, conservation of charge and the addition of p.ds, formulae for capacitors in series and in parallel. (e) solve problems using formulae for capacitors in series and in parallel. * (f) deduce from the area under a potential-charge graph, the equation W = QV and hence W = CV2 .

Capacitors symbol

Capacitors - another electrical component

A capacitor is any device that is capable of storing charge. A practical capacitor is normally made up of two parallel metal plates(called a parallel plate capacitor) separated by an insulator or dielectric e.g. air, mica, waxed paper, polythene, oil etc. An isolated conductor carrying net charge is considered as storing charges and hence functioning as a capacitor A dielectric increases the amount of charge that can be stored Capacitors are used in electrical and electronic devices same as resistors Capacitors are generally non-polarity sensitive. However polarity sensitive capacitors are known as electrolytic capacitors and must be connected with the correct polarity or they will be damaged Some uses are to store charge, store energy, coupled with an inductor to tune a radio circuit, to power electromagnets in supercolliders, filter out high frequency radio waves, camera flashes, in computers to 3 function when there is a power failure, to save valuable data

Breakdown potential in capacitor dielectrics

When an external voltage applied across a capacitor containing a gaseous dielectric is increased gradually, there will reach a potential whereby the gas molecules are ionized resulting in electrical conduction and hence a drop in the p.d. across the capacitor. The potential applied that causes this effect is called the breakdown potential.

Capacitance

When an isolated spherical conductor is connected to a high voltage supply, it is found that as the potential is increased, the charge stored on the sphere also increases i.e. Q V and hence Q = CV where the gradient C is a constant depending on the size of the conductor and known as the capacitance The capacitance C of a capacitor is defined as the ratio of the charge Q stored on either plate to the potential difference V between the plates. Thus: C = Q/V It can also be defined as the charge stored per unit p.d. applied to the capacitor. The unit of C is farads (F). 1 farad is 1 coulomb per volt. i.e F = C V-1 Capacitance is a measure of the charge storing ability of a conductor or the extent to which a capacitor can store charge. The value of C in radio and hi-fi systems are usually from micro-farads (F = 10-6 F) to pico-farads (pF = 10-12 F).
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Factors affecting capacitance

The material used as a dielectric affects the capacitance of a capacitor Experiment shows that capacitance is directly proportional to the area of the plates and inversely proportional to the distance between them i.e. C A/d For a capacitor with air or a vacuum between the plates, the constant of proportionality is the permittivity of free space 0 whose value is 8.85 x 10-12 C2 N-1 m-2 thus C = 0A/d and the unit of permittivity is F m-1 A quantity called relative permittivity r is introduced to account for the fact that the use of a dielectric increases the capacitance The relative permittivity is defined as the capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor with the dielectric between the plates divided by the capacitance of the same capacitor with a vacuum between the plates Including the relative permittivity factor, the full expression for the capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor is C = 0r A/d
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Relative permittivity of some materials

Materials Air Polythene Sulphur Paraffin oil Mica Barium titanate Relative permittivity 1.0005 2.3 4 4.7 6 1200

Example
A parallel plate air-fi;;ed capacitor has square plates of side 30 cm that are a distance 1.0 mm apart. Given that 0 = 8.85 x 10-12 C2 N-1 m-2 calculate the capacitance of the capacitor. Solution Using C = 0r A/d = 8.0 x 10-10 F

Q-V graph - relationship between charge and potential

If the charge and the p.d. is measured at various times of the charging process, the following Q - V graph is obtained. The gradient is equal to a quantity known as capacitance. Capacitance C = Q/V
Q

V
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Charging and discharging circuit

A V R

switch

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Charging/Discharging of a parallel plate capacitor

In a circuit where a battery or energy source is connected through a switch to a parallel plate capacitor and an ammeter in series, a maximum current I0 is observed initially which then decreases gradually to zero as time increases. No current flows through the capacitor. The time period during which the current drops from a maximum value I0 to zero is the charging stage. When charging a capacitor work is done by the battery to move charge on to the capacitor hence energy is transferred from the power supply and stored as electric potential energy in the capacitor If this battery is then disconnected and the fully charged capacitor is now connected to an external resistor, a maximum current of initial value I0 flows through the circuit in the opposite direction to that of the charging stage. The current similarly will drop to zero after a certain time. This time period is said to be the discharging stage. 11 This mechanism is known as induction

charging C

O time discharging C

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Induction
In the same circuit earlier with the switch is on, electrons from the metal plate of the capacitor and connecting leads will be attracted to the + ve terminal of the battery. Electrons in the connecting leads joined to the ve terminal will be pushed to the other metal plate i.e + ve plate As time goes by, more electrons are deposited on one plate than the other plate hence becoming more positive. A potential difference is set up across the plates This p.d. will become constant when it reaches the e.m.f value of the battery The induction process will then stop. This takes only a fraction of a second if there is negligible resistance in the circuit. If a resistor is connected in series, it will slow down the entire process. It will then take a longer time to charge the capacitor
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Arrangement of Capacitors in Circuit

Capacitors can be arranged in a series or parallel manner in a circuit similar to resistors. Such arrangements will give rise to a resultant or combined capacitance for each that can be calculated

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Capacitors in Parallel - derivation

For capacitors charged in parallel generally, each capacitor stores a different amount of charge as the current could be different in the different paths. It can be proved that the effective capacitance C of such connections is given by: C = C1 + C2 + C3 + ... + Cn For 3 capacitors connected in parallel, VAB = VCD = VEF = V0 , upon complete charging By the law of conservation of charge, total charge Q for the three capacitors is: Q = Q1 + Q2 + Q3 = C1V0 + C2V0 + C3V0 since Q = CV If the effective capacitance is C, then Q = CV0 = C1V0 + C2V0 + C3V0 giving C = C1 + C2 + C3 i.e in a parallel circuit the effective capacitance is the sum of the individual capacitances (compare this with resistors)

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Example
Calculate the effective capacitance for a) 10 F and 40 F in parallel Ans: 50 F b) 10 F , 40 F and 8 F in parallel Ans: 58 F

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Capacitors in Series - derivation

When charged in series, each capacitor stores the same amount of charge as the current through all of them is the same. The effective/combined capacitance C for series connections of capacitors is: 1/C = 1/C1 + 1/C2 + 1/C3 + ...+ 1/Cn For 3 capacitors in series, V0 = VAB + VCD + VEF V0 = Q/C1 + Q/C2 + Q/C3 since V = Q/C Q/C = Q/C1 + Q/C2 + Q/C3

1/C = 1/C1 + 1/C2 + 1/C3

i.e in a series circuit the effective capacitance is the reciprocal of the sum of the reciprocals of the individual capacitances (again compare this with resistors)

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Example
Calculate the effective capacitance for a) 10 F and 40 F in series Ans: 8 F b) 10 F , 40 F and 8 F in series Ans: 4 F

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Summary of capacitors in series and parallel

For capacitors in parallel, the combined capacitance is greater than the largest capacitor For capacitors in series, the combined capacitance is less than the smallest capacitance For 2 identical capacitance in parallel, the combined capacitance is equal to double that of a single capacitance For 2 identical capacitors in series, the combined capacitance is equal to half that of a single capacitance

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Example
Calculate the charge stored in a capacitor connected to a battery of e.m.f 10 V if the capacitance is 470 F.
Solution

Q = CV = 470 x 10-6 F x 10 V = 4.7 x 10-3 = 4.7 mC

since F = C V-1

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Energy stored
In the Q-V graph, the area under the graph represents the energy stored. E = QV = CV2 = Q2/C = Q2/2C Theory: if work is needed to separate the charges across the gap, then work done = Fd W = Fd = Eqd = qd x V/d = qV Hence, total work W = integration of q.dV = area under graph
V V0

0 0 Q0

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Examples
Calculate the energy stored for a 470 uF capacitor at 10 V. Solution E = CV2 = x 470 x 10-6 F x (10 V)2 = 0.0235 J
Try this for the units: (F x V2 = C V-1 x V2 = C V = J since, energy or work done = Fd = C V)

A camera flash lamp uses a 5000 uF capacitor which is charged by a 9 V battery. Calculate the energy transferred when the capacitor is fully discharged through the lamp Solution E = CV2 = x 5000 x 10-6 x (9)2 = 0.203 J

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Capacitors and resistors on printed circuit boards

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Resuscitator

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Rating
A capacitor is usually rated as value F, value V e.g. 470 F, 16 V What does the rating mean? For every 1 V increase in pd, there will be an increase of 470 C of charge 16 V is the max safe operating p.d. beyond which the capacitor will break down.

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Example
A capacitor of capacitance 220 F is connected to a battery of e.m.f. 20 V. After being fully charged, it is disconnected from the battery and is connected to an empty capacitor of capacitance 470 F . What is: (a) the final voltage across the capacitors. Ans: 6.38 V (b) the charge on each capacitor ? Ans : 1.41 mC; 3 mC

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Example
You are provided with capacitors of ratings 48 F, 25 V. Show the combinations of capacitors to produce (a) a capacitor of rating 96 F, 25V (b) a capacitor of rating 24 F, 50V (c) a capacitor of rating 72 F, 50 V (d) a capacitor of rating 16.0 F, 75V

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Capacitors in A.C. Circuits

Capacitors are widely used in alternating current and radio circuits because they can transmit alternating currents. Charge cannot flow through the dielectric of the capacitor due to one direction flow of the d.c. When an alternating voltage V of frequency f is applied to a capacitor, an a.c. current flows in the circuit even though the capacitor has an insulator between its plates. When f is high, such as 50 or 100 Hz, a steady current I flows through the circuit where : I = fQ since I = Q/t

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Graph of discharge current/charge against time

A graph of discharge current/charge against time is seen to change very rapidly at first and then move more slowly Analysis shows that the graph is exponential which has an equation of the form x = x0e-kt where x is the quantity that is decaying, x0 the value of x at t = 0, e = 2.718 (the root of natural log) and k is a constant characteristic of the decay A large value of k means that the decay is rapid and a small value of k means a slow decay The solution for the discharge of a capacitor of capacitance C through a resistor is of the form Q = Q0e-t/CR where Q0 is the charge on the plates at t = 0 and Q is the charge at time t Since C is proportional to V, the equation for discharge of a capacitor may be written as V = V0e-t/CR and I = I0e-t/CR As time progresses, the exponential curve gets closer and closer to the time axis but never actually meets it, thus it is not possible to quote a 29 time for the capacitor to discharge completely

Time constant CR
The quantity CR in the decay equation may be used to give an indication of whether the decay is fast or slow and is called the time constant of the capacitor-resistor circuit Since C = Q/V and R = V/I, CR = Q/I = t which is in seconds To find the charge Q on the capacitor plates after a time t = CR we substitute t = CR in the exponential equation Q = Q0e-t/CR giving Q = Q0e-CR/CR = Q0e-1 = Q0/e = Q0/2.718 = Hence the time constant is the time for the charge to have dcecreased to 1/e (or 1/2.718) of its initial charge This means that in 1 time constant, the charge stored by the capacitor drops to roughly one-third of its initial value. In the next time constant it will drop by the same ratio, to about one-ninth of the value at the beginning of the decay

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Example
A 500 uF capacitor is connected to a 10 V supply, and is then discharged through a 100 k resistor. Calculate:
a) the initial charge stored by the cpacitor b) the initial discharge current c) the value of the time constant d) the charge on the plates after 100 s e) the time at which the remaining charge is 2.5 x 10-3 C

Solution a) Q = CV, so Q = 500 x 10-6 x 10 = 5.0 x 10-3 C b) I = V/R, so I = 10/(100 x 103) = 1.0 x 10-4 A c) CR = 500 x 10-6 x 100 x 103 = 50 s d) after 50 s, the charge on the plates is Q0/2.718 = 1.8 x 10-3 C after another 50 s, the charge is 1.8 x 10-3/2.718 = 6.8 x 10-4 C e) using Q = Q0e-t/CR , 2.5 x 10-3 = 5.0 x 10-3e-t/50 or 0.50 = e-t/50 Taking natural log on both sides, -0.693 = -t/50 or t = 35 s

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Worked examples
Define the capacitance of a capacitor The figure below shows a circuit which is used to determine the capacitance of a capacitor C. The switch S causes the capacitor to be alternatively charged by the battery and completely discharged through the ammeter. The battery has an e.m.f. of 6.0 V and negligible internal resistance. (a) Describe, in terms of the flow of charged particles, what happens in the circuit when the capacitor is being charged. (b) The switch S is set so that the charge/discharge process occurs 50 times per second and the steady reading on the ammeter is 0.14 mA. Calculate the capacitance of C. (c) Calculate the maximum energy stored by the capacitor.

6V

switch

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Solution
C = Q/V where Q is the charge and V is the potential difference. (a) Electrons flow away from the -ve battery terminal or towards the +ve terminal. (b) Q = It = 1/f (I) = (0.14 x 10-3)/50 = 2.8 x 10-6 C C = Q/V = (2.8 x 10-6)/6 = 4.7 x 10-7 F = 0.47 F (c) Energy stored = CV2 = 0.5 x 4.7 x 10-7 x 62 = 8.4 x 10-6 J

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Summary
Capacitors store charge or energy Charged by the process of induction Capacitors have a rating of capacitance and maximum safe voltage Capacitance = charge/p.d. across plates = C = Q/V Energy stored = area under graph = QV Capacitance increases in parallel connections but decreases in series connections Q = Q0e-t/CR , I = I0e-t/CR , V = V0e-t/CR

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Exercises
1) A capacitor, C1, of 4 F is charged to a potential difference of 50 V. Another capacitor, C2, of 6F is charged to a potential difference of 100V. (a) Find the energy stored in each capacitor. [ 5x10-3 J; 30x10-3 J ] (b) If the two capacitors are now joined, with plates of like charge connected together, what is the final common p.d.? [ 80 V ] (c) What is the energy stored after the connection?[ 32x10-3 J ] (d) What happens to the difference in energy stored? [ loss energy = 3x10-3 J ] A 2 F capacitor is charged to a potential of 200 V and then isolated. When it is connected in parallel with a second capacitor which is initially uncharged, the common potential becomes 40 V. Find the capacitance of the second capacitor. [ 8 F ] Given a number of capacitors each with a capacitance of 2F and a maximum safe working potential difference of 10 V, how would you construct capacitors of (a) 1 F capacitance, suitable for use up to 20 V (b) 2 F capacitance, suitable for use up to 20 V? A capacitor of capacitance 160 F is charged to a potential difference of 200 V and then connected across a discharge tube, which conducts until the potential difference across it has fallen to 100 V. Calculate the energy dissipated in the tube. [ 2.4 J ]
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