FUEL SYSTEMS

Aircraft Fuel
Reciprocating engine fuels Turbine engine fuels
Jet A which is Kerosene Jet B a blend of kerosene and gasoline Jet A-1 used for operation at extremely low temperatures
Jet A and Jet B are the most common

Fuel System Contamination

The higher the viscosity of the fuel, the greater its ability to hold contaminants in suspension This is why jet fuels, which have a higher viscosity than av-gas, are also more susceptible to contamination than av-gas The main contaminants that reduce the quality of fuel are:
Other petroleum products Water Rust Scale Dirt

Water Contamination
Water contamination in fuel can be in two forms:
Dissolved in the fuel Entrained or suspended in the fuel

Water in fuel can cause icing in the aircraft fuel system, usually in:
Boost pump screens Low pressure filters

Large amounts of water can cause engine stoppage

Microbial Growth
Microbial Growth is produced by various forms of microorganisms that live and multiply in water which is in jet fuel These micro-organisms form slime that can be red, brown, green, or black The organisms feed on hydrocarbons in the fuel but require water to multiply This buildup can:
Interfere with fuel flow and quantity indications Start electrolytic corrosive action

Contamination Detection
Coarse fuel contamination can be detected visually Uncontaminated fuel should be:
Clean Bright Contain no perceptible free water

Contamination Detection (cont.)

Clean means the absence of any readily visible sediment or entrained water Bright refers to the shiny appearance of clean, dry fuel Free water is indicated by a cloud, haze, or water slug
Water saturated in fuel is not always visible Perfectly clear water can contain as much as three times the acceptable limit

Contamination Detection (cont.)

There is no accurate method of detecting fuel entrained water when it is frozen For this reason, it is important that fuel is checked when the water is in a liquid state
This should not be done following a flight at altitude when the fuel would be below 32 degrees F It is more effective to drain the fuel after the fuel has set undisturbed for a period of time, allowing the water to precipitate and settle to the drain point

Fuel Systems
The purpose of an aircraft fuel system is to store and deliver the proper amount of clean fuel at the correct pressure to the engine Fuel systems should provide positive and reliable fuel flow through all phases of flight including:
Changes in altitude Violent maneuvers Sudden acceleration and deceleration

Fuel Systems (cont.)

Fuel systems should also continuously monitor system operation such as:
Fuel pressure Fuel flow Warning signals Tank quantity

Types of Fuel Systems

Fuel systems can be classified in two broad categories:
Gravity-Feed Systems Pressure-Feed Systems

Gravity-Feed Systems
Gravity-Feed Systems use only the force of gravity to push fuel to the engine fuel-control mechanism The bottom of the fuel tank must be high enough to provide adequate pressure to the fuel-control component
This type of system is often used in high-wing light aircraft

Pressure-Feed Systems
Pressure-Feed Systems require the use of a fuel pump to provide fuel-pressure to the engines fuel-control component There are two main reasons these systems are necessary:
The fuel tanks are too low to provide enough pressure from gravity The fuel tanks are a great distance from the engine

Also, most large aircraft with higher powered engines require a pressure system regardless of the fuel tank location because of the large volume of fuel used by the engines

Fuel System Components

Pumps Tanks Lines Valves Fuel Flow-meters Filters and Strainers Quantity Indicators Warning Components Fuel Drains Heaters

Fuel Pumps
Fuel pumps are used to move fuel through the system then gravity feed is insufficient There are three main functions of fuel pumps, they are to move fuel from:
The tanks to the engines One tank to another The engine back to the tanks

Fuel-Pump Requirements
Engine fuel systems require main pumps and in some systems emergency pumps These requirements depend on the type of engines installed on the aircraft

Reciprocating-Engine Fuel-Pump Requirements

Reciprocating-engines which are not gravity-fed require:
At least one main pump for each engine These pumps must be engine-driven The pump capacity must capable of providing enough fuel flow for all operations

Turbine-Engine Fuel-Pump Requirements

Turbine-Engines require:
At least one main pump for each engine Main pump power supply must be independent of all other main pump power supplies Each positive-displacement main pump must be able to be bypassed

Turbine-Engine Fuel-Pump Requirements (cont.)

Turbine-engines also require emergency pumps
The emergency pump must be immediately available to supply fuel to the engine in the event of a main pump failure Emergency pump power supplies must be independent of that of the corresponding main pump If both the emergency and main pumps operate continuously, there must be some means of alerting the flight crew of a failure of either pump

Fuel Pump Classification

One way to classify fuel pumps is according to the pumps function These classifications are:
Boost Pump Scavenge Pump Cross-feed Pumps

Fuel Pump Classification

Another way to classify fuel pumps is by their method of operation These pumps are:
Vane-type
Variable-volume

Centrifugal Ejector

Vane-Type Pumps
Vane-type fuel pumps are the most common They use a rotor which turns vanes in a cylinder, the vanes act to push the fuel through the system Vane-type pumps can have from two to six vanes and they may be variable volume also

Centrifugal Pumps
Centrifugal pumps are used to move fuel from one tank to another or from the fuel tank to the engine They are electrically driven and some may operate at different speeds

Ejector Pumps
An ejector pump is normally used to scavenge fuel from remote areas These pumps have no moving parts they rely on return fuel from the engine to pump the fuel Ejector pumps work on the venturi principle

Fuel Tanks
Fuel systems on different aircraft may use several types of fuel tanks The three basic types of fuel tanks used on aircraft are:
Integral Rigid Removable Bladder

Integral Fuel Tanks

Integral Fuel Tanks are commonly located in the aircrafts wings or fuselage These tanks are ones that are built into the structure of the aircraft and generally can not be removed Integral Fuel Tanks are formed by the actual structure of the aircraft The seams are sealed, usually with synthetic rubber, to produce an area inside the aircraft structure which will contain the fuel This type of tank is used in some light high-performance aircraft and turbine-powered transports

Rigid Removable Fuel Tanks

Rigid removable fuel tanks are often made of aluminum components that are welded together These tanks are installed in compartments specifically made for the tank The tanks may be held in place with padded straps This type of tank is often found on more expensive light aircraft and reciprocating-engine-powered transports

Bladder Type Fuel Tanks

Bladder type fuel tanks are basically a reinforced rubberized bag These tanks are installed in compartments which support the weight of the fuel The tank is held in place with buttons or snaps on the bottom and sides of the tank This type of tank is usually found on light aircraft and some turboprop and turbine-powered aircraft

Fuel Lines
Fuel lines on aircraft are either made of rigid metal tubing or flexible hose Most of the fuel lines are the rigid type which are usually made of aluminum alloys The flexible hose fuel lines are either made of synthetic rubber or Teflon The diameter of tubing used is decided by the engines fuel requirements

Valves
Fuel selector valves are used in aircraft fuel systems to:
Shut off fuel flow Cross-feed Transfer fuel

Selector valves may be operated manually or electrically depending on the installation

Filters and Strainers

Fuel is usually strained at three points in the system Through a finger or bootstrap strainer in the bottom of the fuel tank Through a master strainer which is usually located at the lowest point in the system Through a third strainer near the fuel control unit

Quantity Indicators
Mechanical
Inverted float gauge Rotating dial gauge Upright float gauge Sight-glass gauge

Resistance Capacitance

Fuel Subsystems
Some aircraft fuel subsystems allow for fuel: Jettison Heating Cross-Feeding

Fuel Jettison
The fuel jettison system comprises a combination of fuel lines, valves, and pumps provided to dump fuel overboard during an inflight emergency This will reduce the weight of the aircraft so an emergency landing is possible

Fuel Heating
Fuel heating is necessary for turbine engines to thaw ice particles in the fuel that would otherwise clog the filters Fuel is routed through a heat exchanger that uses either engine oil or compressor bleed air to bring the fuel up to an acceptable temperature

Cross Feeding
Cross feed systems allow the flow of fuel from any of the tanks to any of the engines Some reasons that this system might be used are:
Engine failure Problem with one or more fuel tanks Redistribute fuel for weight and balance purposes

FUEL TANKS
Aircraft fuel tanks come in a variety of types and sizes. Can be located almost anywhere in the aircraft (wings, fuselage, tail). Managing fuel distribution between tanks on large aircraft can be very involved.

BLADDER TANKS
Rubber bladders are used to store fuel. Usually in the wings. Will deteriorate over time, but are easier to replace than metal tanks. Black flecks may appear in strained fuel which indicates deterioration. Tend to deform over time which causes water, fuel, and sediment entrapment.

BLADDER TANK DEFORMATION

Over time the bladder begins to deform and rise up between attach points.

This causes fuel, water, and sediment to collect in the valleys.

Which results in increased unusable fuel, inaccurate quantity readings, possible contamination during aggressive attitudes.

RIGID REMOVABLE TANKS

Welded aluminum tanks inserted into the aircraft. Usually fuselage tanks. A disadvantage of this type of tank is added weight. An advantage is the ability to remove and repair. The Selair C-172 fleet is equipped with this type of tank with the exception of two airplanes: OSQ- 50G integral tanks SPY-60G integral tanks

INTEGRAL TANKS (WET WING)

Integral tanks are made by sealing off compartments inside the wings. They have the advantage of utilizing existing aircraft structure to contain fuel, which reduces weight. Commonly found in large aircraft.

EXTERNAL WING TANKS (TIP TANKS)

These fuel tanks are mounted externally. Tip tanks at the end of the wingtips. (C-310) Underwing tanks: no those arent bombs. (Lockheed Jetstar) Tip tanks can have an aerodynamic advantage as they act like winglets.

FUEL TANK LAYOUT

Fuel tanks can be arranged in multiple tank designs. Fuel can be used simultaneously from different tanks, or one at a time. On large aircraft the order in which tanks are filled and burned off has an effect on weight and balance. Some complex fuel systems have fuel burn schedules which involve systematic burn off and transfer between tanks to ensure limits are not exceeded. In the case of wet wing aircraft outboard tanks are usually filled first and emptied last, to ensure wing structural integrity. The fuel in the wings counteracts the forces of weight.

Fuel burn in swept wing aircraft can have a significant effect on C of G.

Involved fuel burn schedules

COLLECTOR TANKS
Aircraft with long wings are subject to fuel starvation due to sloshing. This is guarded against by incorporating collector tanks into the system. All fuel goes to the collector tank prior to reaching the engine. This smaller collector tank is always full of fuel which absorbs any interruptions in feed due to sloshing.

Collector tank prevents engine fuel starvation due to sloshing.

COLLECTOR TANK INTEGRAL WING TANK

FUEL PUMPS
High wing carbureted aircraft are usually gravity fed and dont need fuel pumps. (C-172) Fuel injected and low wing aircraft require a fuel pump to supply positive pressure to the fuel metering system. Fuel pumps are also used to transfer fuel between tanks and provide crossfeed. Fuel pumps are usually lubricated by the fuel itself and can overheat if run dry. These pumps are usually engine driven. Fuel is fed to the engine at a rate faster than it can be used, this means return lines are necessary.

CAVITATION
The formation of an air pocket (cavity) in the fuel. If the fuels pressure becomes too low it will vaporize. The pump creates a low pressure area as the fuel is accelerated. Air pockets forming on the suction side of the pump can cause cavitation. Fuel pumps are incapable of pumping a gas. This can cause pump damage, and possibly an interruption in flow.

BOOST PUMPS (STANDBY PUMPS)

Boost pumps are used: As a backup for the engine driven pump. Crossfeed operation. Priming. Start operation. Fuel transfer. Provide positive pressure to the engine driven pump. Usually on for take off and landing to guard against an engine failure due to pump failure at a critical point. Boost pumps are also used to provide positive feed pressure to engine driven pumps which helps prevent cavitation. These pumps are usually electrically powered.

MOTIVE FLOW PUMPS (JET PUMP)

These pumps are usually used for inter-tank transfer. They rely on venturi effect to create suction. A electrically or engine driven pump provides flow in the line, then a venturi creates suction.

FUEL VALVES
Used to guide the flow of fuel within the system. Fuel valves can be manual (C-172, B-95) or electrically powered. Check valves restrict flow to one direction. Tank selector valves control which tank is to be used. Firewall shut-off valves prevent fuel from reaching the engine. Used to secure engine in emergency situations.

FUEL HEATERS
Jet fuel is prone to ice crystal formation and congealing. Fuel heaters are incorporated to ensure the fuel is warmed to optimum operating temperatures before it reaches the engine. This is usually accomplished by some form of heat transfer. Ex. Running the fuel lines through a heat exchanger plumbed with warm oil lines.

FUEL VENTS
As fuel is removed from a tank it must be replaced with air or a vacuum will be created and fuel flow will stop. The vacuum could possibly create tank collapse. Provides an escape for air in the case of thermal expansion. Vents must be heated or flush mounted, or recessed to protect against icing conditions.

DRAINS AND STRAINERS

Drains at the low points of a fuel system are important to drain water which collects at the bottom. To drain tanks for maintenance. Strainers collect contaminants in the fuel to ensure they are not ingested by the engine.

MEASURING QUANTITY
Most light aircraft utilize floats to measure fuel quantity. More sophisticate aircraft use capacitance type quantity indicators. Jet fuel volume changes significantly with temperature. Mass will remain constant and can be measured by electric probes or light sensing prisms. The gauges of this sort of system usually indicate fuel quantity in pounds.

DIPSTICKS
Dipping fuel tanks is common practice with light aircraft. The gauges tend to be inaccurate and dipping the tanks often results in more accurate readings. Most large aircraft have a manual method of determining fuel load in the event of gauge failure Magnetic measuring sticks are one method of accomplishing this.

CROSSFEED
Crossfeed capabilities of a multi-engine fuel system are essential to ensure fuel on the failed engine side is available for use. Crossfeed also enables the pilot to correct fuel imbalance situations. It is important to understand how the system works for your specific aircraft. In some systems certain tanks may be unavailable during crossfeed. Specific procedures may apply. (B-95 failed engine selector must not be off) The decision to crossfeed fuel after an engine failure should not be taken lightly. If the engine failure was the result of contaminated fuel it could mean trouble for the operative engine.

C-172

C-210