Chapter 15 Flow Measurements

Measuring flow rate is extremely important for many industrial

processes, and often is necessary in the lab also. The term flow rate is
ambiguous, we should specify whether we mean mass flow rate or
volume flow rate.
Conservation of Mass

dm
sys
dt
= m
inlet

m
exit

(From Thermo)

c
ct
dV + U
CS
}}
CV
}}}
-

n dA = 0 (From Fluids)

m = U
A
}}
-

n dA = U
( )
A
Volume Flow
If the density is constant, then this tells us that the volume flow is
fixed, or Q
in
= Q
out
where


Q= U
A
}}
-

n dA =U A

m = U
A
}}
-

n dA = U
( )
A
So if we want to measure volume flow rate, we need something
sensitive to average velocity.

If we want to measure mass flow rate, we need something to average
mass flux
15.2 Flow Characteristics
Laminar/Turbulent determined by Reynolds number
Volume Flow Rate Measurement
Brute Force Method. Measure the velocity, do the integral.
Bernoullis Equation

P
1
P
2

=
V
2
2
V
1
2
2g
c
Obstruction Meters

P
1
P
2

=
V
2
2
V
1
2
2g
c
15.3.1 Obstruction Meters
for = const

p
1

+
V
1
2
2
=
p
2

+
V
2
2
2

Q
ideal
=V
2
A
2
=
A
2
1 A
2
/ A
1
( )
2
| |
1/ 2
2g
c
P
1
P
2
( )

V
1
=
A
2
A
1
|
\

|
.
|
V
2

P
1
P
2
=
V
2
2

2g
c
1 A
2
/ A
1
( )
2
| |
Velocity Approach Factor

E =
1
1 A
2
/ A
1
( )
2
| |
1/ 2
For round pipes, make | = d/D where d is the smaller diameter while D
is the larger,

E =
1
1 |
4

C =
Q
actual
Q
ideal
K = C E =
C
1|
4
discharge coefficient

flow coefficient

Q
actual
= KA
2
2g
c
P
1
P
2
( )

Venturi Meters
0.95 < C < 0.98
Flow Nozzles
Bore diameters from 0.375 to 24
Orifice Flow Meters
Losses in Orifice Flow Meters
Relative performance
Application
Choked Flow and Sonic Nozzles
If the flow inside of one of these devices becomes sonic, the mass
flow rate becomes fixed with changes in the downstream pressure.
This can be used to limit the mass flow, and can also be something to
be avoided, because when it occurs, our calibrations we have been
talking about are no longer valid. Choked flow exists if

p
o
p
1
=
2
k +1
|
\

|
.
|
k / k1
( )
We can use this fact to fix the mass
flow at a value equal to

m =
1
A 2RT
1
k
k +1
2
k +1
|
\

|
.
|
2
k1
Laminar Flow Elements
The obstruction meters are something you are most likely to see in an
industrial setting, since they are cheap and rugged. If more accuracy is
desired, and you have more money and you arent flowing something
really nasty, a laminar flow element may be more appropriate.
Remember that flow is laminar at small Reynolds number: Re = UD/v.
This tells us that we can make flow laminar if we put it through a
sufficiently small D.
Laminar Flow Elements
We do this because the pressure drop/flow rate relationship for
laminar flow is very nicely behaved:

Q=
td
1
4
128
p
1
p
2
L
Re < 2000
The important part is the fact that Q varies linearly with AP. Once again,
the manufacturer of this meter will provide the sensitivity.
Meriam Laminar Flow Elements
Rotameters

Q= A
w
C
2gu
f

f

w
( )
A
f

w




(

(
(
1/ 2
A
w
=
t
4
|
\

|
.
|
D+ by
( )
2
d
2
| |
2% full scale
Turbine Flow Meters
1/2%
Vortex Shedding Meters

St =
f D
V
Vortex Shedding Meters

St =
f D
V
Vortex Shedding Meters

Q = K
1
e
K
1
~
td
3
4St
Mass Flow Meters
Thermal Flow Meter 1st law, ideal gas:


E =

m c
p
AT
Cheaper Mass Flow Meters
Old School
Velocity Measurements
Static Pressure
A very fortunate result of boundary layer theory tells is that the
pressure gradient normal to a wall is negligible. This means that if we
measure the pressure at the wall, it is the same as in the bulk fluid. So,
we can put a small hole in the wall of whatever we are looking at and
measure the pressure there.
Velocity--Pitot-Static Probe

p
s

+
U
s
2
2
=
p
T

+
U
T
2
2

U
s
= 2
p
T
p
s

o
U
s
2
=o
AP
2
cU
dAP
|
\

|
.
|
2
=o
AP
2
1
AP
|
\

|
.
|
2
Pitot probe errors
Kiel Probes
Static Pressure Probes
Transmission Effects
Many times, the pressure is transmitted to a sensor via some sort of
flexible tube. This tube will effect the response of the system, and
we need to be careful that it does not affect our results.
Thermal Anemometry
Particle Image Velocimetry
PIV
PIV data
Flow meter calibration