Chapter 16 Temperature

Measurements
The manner in which a thermometer is calibrated needs to correspond
to how it used. Under normal circumstances, you can get accuracy
from 0.2 to 2C.
Thermometry based on thermal expansion
Liquid-in-glass thermometers
Bimetalic Thermometers
If you take two metals with different thermal expansion coefficients
and bond them together, they will bend in one direction if the
temperature rises above the temperature at which the boding was done
and in the other if it gets less.
Bimetalic Example
16.4 Electrical Resistance
Thermometry
This is a more useful topic to us mainly because these sensors have
an electrical output and can be interfaced to data acquisition systems.

R =

e
l
A
c
The resistivity of most materials is temperature dependent, and
we can use this fact to sense temperature
Resistance Temperature Detectors
A resistance of a small wire is used to detect temperature. Other
factors that can change the resistance must be minimized. These
include: Corrosion
Strain
RTDs
The relationship between the metal resistance and temperature
can be expressed as an n
th
order polynomial

R = R
0
1+ A T T
0
( )
+ B T T
0
( )
2
+ ....
| |

R = R
0
1+ A T T
0
( ) | |
Over a limited range, Some use o instead of A
RTDs
If we want the high
accuracy of which RTDs
are capable, we need to
have a very accurate
resistance measurement
system and a means to
remove the effect of the
lead wires from our
measurements. Even
copper lead wires have
significant resistance.

R
1
R
2
=
R
3
+ r
1
R
RTD
+ r
3

R
RTD
= R
3
+ r
1
r
3
Examples

u
x
2
~ u
u
2
cx
cu
|
\

|
.
|
2
+ u
v
2
cx
cv
|
\

|
.
|
2
+
R
1
= R
2
= 25O 1%, 0.1%
at 0C R
3
= R
RTD
= 25O
R
RTD
=R
0
[1 + o(T - T
0
)] o = 0.003925C
-1
Thermistors
Usually made of a semiconductor and have the following properties:
Much larger dR/dT than RTDs, so more sensitive
Rugged
Fast Response
Inconsistent, must be calibrated individually
Can change over time
Thermistors

R = R
0
e
| 1/T1/T
0
( )
Thermistors
16.5 Thermoelectric Temperature
Measurement
In this section, we will learn about perhaps the most important
temperature measuring technique--Thermocouples.
Electromotive Force
Thermoelectric Effects
Seebeck Generates voltages across two dissimilar materials
when a temperature difference is present.

Peltier Moves heat through dissimilar materials when
current is applied.

Thermocouple Laws
Law of Intermediate Materials:
If you break your thermocouple
and add something of another
material, it will have no effect as
long as both ends of the new
material are at the same
temperature.
Law of Intermediate Temperatures:
If you get emf
1
when the two
temperatures are T
1
and T
2
, and you
get emf
2
when you have T
2
and T
3
,
you will get emf
1
+ emf
2
when the
temperatures are T
1
and T
3
.
Designations
Positive wire is listed first
Thermocouple Measurements
The reason we call it emf rather than voltage is that this output only
truly exists for an open circuit. We must be careful to measure the
output of the thermocouple in such a way as to not draw current, which
would load the thermocouple and effect the reading. Digital volt
meters have very high input impedance, as does our data acquisition
system. Either of these will work fine if they are sensitive enough.
The book talks of using potentiometers to measure the voltage, but this
harks back to the era prior to very high impedance measuring devices.
Thermocouple Output
(T)
(K)
Thermocouple Calibration
Thermocouple Measurements
The measurement we make with a single thermocouple is relative to the junction
temperature. The charts and polynomials tell us the temperature relative to 0C as a
function of voltage. The Law of Intermediate Temperatures allows us to convert our
datum from 0 to our measured reference temperature. WARNING: Although it looks
like it, we are not simply adding the junction temperature to the temperature indicated
by the thermocouple voltage. This works only if the thermocouple is perfectly linear,
which they are not in general.
Example 16.1
Example
Say we hook a J type thermocouple to a volt meter and read 0.507 mV.
An independent temperature measurement at the connection to the volt
meter tells us that the temperature there is 20C. What is the
temperature at the thermocouple junction?

Table 16.6 is relative to 0C (notice that the voltage at that temperature
is zero). At 20C, the voltage from the table is 1.019 mV. So our
voltage relative to 0C is the measured voltage plus the 20 value:
1.019 + 0.507 = 1.526.

Going back to the table, this corresponds to 29.79C.
Procedure
1) Measure the thermocouple voltage E
tc
2) Measure the temperature at the location where the tc is connected to
the meter (the reference temperature, T
ref
)

3) Using a table or a polynomial, find the voltage generated by the
junction at the meter at T
ref
, call it E
ref
.
4) Add the two voltages E = E
tc
+ E
ref
.
5) Find the temperature that corresponds to E from tables or a
polynomial.
Example
Jethro wants to make some tc measurements, but the closest thing he
has to a thermometer is the thermostat in lab. It is set to 20 C. He
knows that the furnace kicks on at 18 and runs until it reaches 22.
He decides to assume that his reference is 20C. What bias error will
he incur?
Extension Leads
Thermocouples cant measure
a single temperature, but can
only tell us the difference in
temperature between two
points. If we can put one of
those points at a known
temperature, we are set.
Error in Reference Temperature
We are starting to accumulate a lot of different kind of errors here. We
get a systematic error if we do not calibrate our thermocouple. If there is
an error in our reference junction temperature (and there is) this is an
additional bias error. We also need to be concerned about our voltage
measurement resolution.
Our System
The minimum voltage range for our system is 0.05V. Recalling that we
have a 12 bit system, and using the polynomials in Tables 16.6-7,
estimate our temperature resolution at 20C for a T type thermocouple.
Add this problem to your next lab.
Effective Junction
dD is the spatial uncertainty
16.5.6 Thermopiles and Thermocouples
Connected in Parallel
16.6 Semiconductor-Junction
Temperature Sensors
16.10.3 Temperature Element
Response
Weve already covered the first part of this in this class (step response to
first order systems) and in heat transfer. Since it is so much fun, lets do
it again. Say you have a thermocouple that is essentially a sphere with
two non-conducting wires protruding from it. You place it in a fluid
warmer than the junction. Then the first law says that E
in
- E
out
= E
stored
.
No heat come in, since the bead is cooler than the fluid.


mc
p
dT
p
dt
= hA
s
T
g
T
p
( )
t
dT
p
dt
+ T
p
= T
g

ks+,
ds
dt
= F(t)
From chapter 5,
And t = ,/k
Response to step input
We have the same equation so we will get the same response.

P = P

+ P
A
P

| |
e
t /t

T T
p
= T
g
T
p
( )
1e
t /t
( )
T = T
g
T
p
( )
e
t /t
+ T
p
+ T
g
T
p
T = T
g
+ T
g
T
p
( )
e
t /t
In practice
As you are keenly aware, h is not always known or easy to compute.
Our friend Dr. Moffat suggests an empirical equation that does not
require knowledge of h.

t =
3500
tc
c
tc
d
1.25
T
V
( )
15.8/ T
Two Time Constant Model
Many (most) times, our temperature sensor is encased in some other
material. As a result, the first order response model may not fit well.
It is relatively simple to make a richer model that can capture this
effect.
Two Time Constant Model

m
j
c
j
dT
j
dt
= h
j
A
j
T
2
T
1
( )
h
p
A
p
T
j
T
p
( )
m
p
c
p
dT
p
dt
= h
p
A
p
T
j
T
p
( )
First law on the jacket
First law on the probe
Rewrite these:

t
j
dT
j
dt
= T
2
T
1
( )

h
p
A
p
h
j
A
j
T
j
T
p
( )
t
p
dT
p
dt
= T
j
T
p
( )
This term is often insignificant. If
so, we can combine the two
equations.

t
j
t
p
d
2
T
j
dt
2
+ t
j
+ t
p
( )
dT
p
dt
+ T
p
= T
2
Two Time Constant Solution

t
j
t
p
d
2
T
j
dt
2
+ t
j
+ t
p
( )
dT
p
dt
+ T
p
= T
2
T
2
T
p
T
2
T
1
=
AT
AT
max
=
,
, 1
|
\

|
.
|
e
t /,t
p

1
, 1
|
\

|
.
|
e
t /t
p
, =
t
j
t
p
16.10.4 Compensating Slow Sensors
16.11 Measurement of Heat Flux
We seek to measure
Slug type
Foil/Membrane type
Thin Film Layers type

q = k
dT
dx
Slug Type

q =
Mc
A
dT
dt
+UAT
Membrane Type

q = 4
tk
R
2
|
\

|
.
|
AT
= C-emf
Thin-Film Layered Type
Bottom line-create a 1-D heat flow and measure temperature at two
known locations.

q = k
dT
dx
~ k
AT
o
Error Sources in Temperature
Measurements
Conduction: Your probe can conduct heat to/from the environment
to/from your desired measurement location
Analysis of Conduction Error

q
x+dx
q
x
= hPdx T(x) T

| |

u = T T

q = kA
dT
dx
m =
hP
kA

d
2
u
dx
2
m
2
u = 0
u x
( )
u
w
=
coshmx
coshmL
u 0
( )
u
w
=
T 0
( )
T

T
w
T

=
1
coshmL
T 0
( )
T

=
T
w
T

coshmL
L
P/A = 4/D for round
16.8 Radiative Temperature
Measurements (Pyrometry)

E
b
=oT
4
Temperatures greater than 500C
o = 5.6710
-8
W/m
2
K
4

Two Broad Categories
Some radiative temperature measurements are made by detecting
photons emitted by the hot source. Well call these Photon
Detectors. There is essentially no difference between this and a
CCD camera.

A Thermal Detector produces a rise in temperature at some detector
Thermal Cameras
Radiative Temperature
Measurements

o+ +t =1
The texts discussion of radiative heat transfer is somewhat dumbed
down. Since most of you are currently Heat Transfer students, I will
put this discussion at a more appropriate level. Radiative heat is
transferred via photons which travel at the speed of light. When this
energy strikes a surface, it can either be absorbed, reflected, or
transmitted.

q =o T
A
4
T
B
4
( )

E =ocT
4
For a non-ideal radiator,
The radiative heat transfer between two ideal bodies A and B

q =c
A
F
BA
o T
A
4
T
B
4
( )
If A is not ideal,
In our case, the detecting element will be B, and from this we will
determine the heat flux (and thus the temperature) of A.

Calibration is required to account for unknown quantities like the
view factor and the body emissivity.
As the body increases in temperature, its emissive power increases,
and the peak of the spectrum shifts to higher frequencies (lower
wavelengths)

E

=
C
1

5
e
C
2
/ T
1
( )
16.8.2 Total Radiation Pyrometry
16.8.3 Optical Pyrometry
One or two wavelengths of light are selected using a series of optical
filters. For a photon detector, we can determine the temperature from

E

=
C
1

5
e
C
2
/ T
1
( )
If two colors (wavelengths) are examined, the influence of the
unknown emissivity of the object, which may be independent of
wavelength, can be eliminated.