Concept of accountability and its relevance to humanitarianism

Maxwell V Madzikanga

The Concept of Accountability

An elusive, complex and dynamic concept Basic Sense: It is the responsible use of power Organisational level: process for taking responsibility for actions and conduct. It entails accounting to stakeholders to seek their endorsement and support The means by which individuals and organisations report to a recognised authority/ies and are held accountable for their action (Edwards and Hulme(1996 p 967) The process of holding actors responsible for their actions( Fox and Brown 1998:12) Being held responsible by others and taking responsibility for oneself(Cornwal etal 2002) It is not only a means through which individuals and organisations are held responsible for their actions(thru mechanisms) but also as a means by which organisations and individuals take internal responsibility for shaping their own organisational missions, values and for opening themselves to public or external scrutiny, and for assessing performance in relation to goals It operates along numerous dimensions-involving several actors (patrons, clients, selves) using various mechanisms and standards of performance(internal, external, explicit, implicit, legal, voluntary) and requiring varying levels of organisational response( functional and strategic)

Why accountability
Series of publicised scandals that have eroded public confidence in non-profit sector Rapid growth of NGOs around the world NGOs are not magic bullets

Forms of accountability
Edward and Hulme(1995) distinguishes two forms of accountability 1. Upward accountability-responsibility to donors, foundations, trustees and host governments. Focussed on the spending of designated monies for designated purposes. 2. Downward accountability: beneficiaries, partners and supporters, communities/regions directly impacted by activities/programmes 3. Internal and external(Ebrahim) Internal: Concerns to NGOS themselves-mission, staff(decision makers, volunteers, field staff) 4. Functional(resources, resource use and immediate impact) and strategic(impacts than an NGOs programme has on other orgs and the wider environment) Stewart(1984) developed a ladder of accountability-probity and legality; Process; Performance; Programme and Policy

Mechanisms of Accountability(Ebrahim 2003)

Reports and disclosure statements Performance assessments and evaluations Participation Self-regulation Social audits

Key Observations
Tendency to focus on upward and external accountability to donors while internal and downward accountability to beneficiaries remains underdeveloped Donors focus on functional accountability i.e. achievement of short term, quantitative objectives and impact instead of change in social and political processes Accountability has both an external dimension in terms of an obligation to meet prescribed standards of behaviour and an internal one motivated by felt responsibility as espoused through individual action and organisational mission

Key Observations
Functional accountability NGOs to patrons(thru reports accounts) is typically high in practice while functional accountability to service users and NGOs themselves is low Strategic accountability is weak on all fronts- current accountability among NGOs, patrons, clients are focussed on short-term activities rather than on long term change In many cases inducements for accountability are external-legal requirements for annual reports, donor quarterly and annual reports, sanctions and threats of loss of funding Internal inducements are also common in mission driven organisations that believe in participation or in valuing environmental. Social and ethical considerations

Key observations
While externally driven mechanisms reduce noncompliance, the legitimacy and reputation of the NGO sector need to be buttressed by internally driven mechanisms Self regulation aimed at sector wide level is more sustainable. Enables the sector to engage in more strategic and national level policy debates Emphasis on functional forms of accountability tends to rewards NGOs for short-term responses with quick and tangible impacts, while neglecting longer term strategic response that address more complex issues of social and political change

Case Studies: Edun, A. (2000)

Eduns examination of six health care projects in Nigeria in 2000-Health Systems Fund, World Bank 1987-94; Benue Health Fund, DFID, 1992-94; UNFPA-assisted Population Health Projects 3rd; Country Project, 1984-96; Ondo State Water for Life, CIDA, 1990-93; Initiatives, USAID, 1992-94; Primary Health Care (PHC) Systems; Strengthening/Bamako Initiative, DFID, 1996-98 Projects were funded by the World Bank and bilateral agencies of the UK, USA and Canada Failed because they had not adequately considered community needs, strengths and conditions prior to the design and implementation

Case Study one

If techniques PPA are used from the outset, at the stages of identification and appraisal, to determine if a project is truly appropriate for the communities it was intended to serve, many obvious causes of failure are avoidable One common complaint by the communities in relation to all the projects was that the approach to baseline studies, monitoring exercises and evaluations demanded considerable inputs of time and other resources by community members, without allowing them any input into the process of project modification that often resulted Often, those involved did not even bother to provide feedback to communities on the findings or consequences of the evaluation. Typically, all that will be seen, perhaps one or more years later, was a new set of faces with a different story about the modified or perhaps entirely new project. Such schemes must be defended from capture by the elite Need for community involvement in evaluation processes, and consequent project modifications at all stages, to ensure the acceptability and cost-effectiveness of the project from the perspective of the intended beneficiaries. This approach could generate multiplier effects on the local economy and provide one mechanism to give a voice to the poor whom such projects sought to empower.

Case Study 2
By Howard-Grabman (2000) Reviewed a pair of USAID funded projects carried out by Save the Children(USA) and John Hopkins University. Projects aimed at increasing community participation in healthcare in Latin America by building partnerships between service providers and clients. The projects involved communities in assessing services, developing goals and objectives in collaboration with service providers. One project in Bolivia established a health information system which utilised simple forms, community maps and easy to read graphics. Communities were involved in decision making and monitoring progress

Conclusion
The challenge of accountability lies in directly addressing the much neglected components in order to find a balance between external and internal, upward and downward, functional and strategic approaches.