A Little Bit of History

M.M.A. Hashem, PhD Professor Department of Computer Science and Engineering Khulna University of Engineering & Technology

Dept. of CSE

Copyright 2003 by M.M.A. Hashem. All rights reserved

Computer Ancient History

Astrolavos artifact discovered in ship wreckage (ca. 65BC) outside Anticithera, Geece, in 1900.

Complicated cogwheel system made of brass (16x32x9 cm).

Chronological data entry. Used as a differential cogwheel system to compute moon phases and rising/setting of moon and planets. Derek Price, An ancient Greek computer, Scientific Dept. of CSE , June 1959. Copyright 2003 by M.M.A. Hashem. American
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About 1,800 Years Later

Charles Babbage

Analytical Engine Started in 1834 No Hertz Rating

Never finished Heinrich Hertz 1857-1894
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Modern Computer History

Eckert and Mauchly

1st working electronic computer (1946) 18,000 Vacuum tubes 1,800 instructions/sec 3,000 ft3
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Computer History
Maurice Wilkes

EDSAC 1 (1949)
http://www.cl.cam.ac.uk/UoCCL/misc/EDSAC99/
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1st store program computer 650 instructions/sec 1,400 ft3

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Copyright 2003 by M.M.A. Hashem. All rights reserved

Intel 4004 Die Photo

Introduced in 1970
First microprocessor

2,250 transistors 12 mm2 108 KHz

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Intel 8086 Die Scan

29,0000 transistors 33 mm2 5 MHz Introduced in 1979
Basic architecture of the IA32 PC

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Intel 80486 Die Scan

1,200,000 transistors 81 mm2 25 MHz Introduced in 1989
1st pipelined implementation of IA32

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Pentium Die Photo (Overlays)

3,100,000 transistors 296 mm2 60 MHz Introduced in 1993
1st superscalar implementation of IA32

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Pentium III
9,5000,000 transistors 125 mm2 450 MHz Introduced in 1999

http://www.intel.com/intel/museum/25anniv/hof/hof_main.htm
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Moores Law

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Levels of abstraction
Quantum level?, solid state physics Conductors, Insulators, Semiconductors. Doping silicon to make diodes and transistors. Building simple gates, boolean logic and truth tables Combinatorial logic: muxes, decoders, adders Clocks Sequential logic: latches memory State machines Processor Control: Machine instructions Computer Architecture: Defining a set of instructions

Start with the materials: Conductors and Insulators

Conductor: a material that permits electrical current to flow easily.
Lattice of atoms with free electrons

Insulator: a material that is a poor conductor of electrical current (see above)

Lattice of atoms with strongly held electrons

Semi-conductor: a material that can act like a conductor or an insulator depending on conditions.
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Making a semiconductor using silicon

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N-type Doping
We can help the conductivity by adding atoms of phosphorus or arsenic to the silicon lattice.
They have more electrons (1 more) which is free to wander This is called n-type doping since we have some free (negatively charged) electrons

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P-type Doping
Interestingly, we can also improve the conductivity by adding atoms of gallium or boron to the silicon lattice.
They have fewer electrons (1 fewer) which creates a hole. Holes also conduct current by stealing electrons from their neighbor (thus moving the hole). This is called p-type doping since we have fewer (negatively charged) electrons in the bond holding the atoms together.

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Using doped silicon to make a junction diode

A junction diode allows current to flow in one direction and blocks it in the other.

Current does not flow

Reverse the battery and current flows

Making a transistor
Our first level of abstraction is the transistor. (basically 2 diodes sitting back-to-back)

http://www.intel.com/education/transworks/INDEX.HTM
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Abstractions in CS (gates)
Make current flow = 1; no flow = 0
A 0 0 1 1 B 0 1 0 1 Y 1 1 1 0 A B
GND A B

Y
Y

http://www.howstuffworks.com/boolean.htm Textbook: See appendix

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Building circuits with combinations of gates

Half Adder A B S C 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 A S Full Adder A B C0

B C
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Other basic circuits

Decoder
A0 A
1

Multiplexor
Out0 Out1 Out2 Out3

A S B

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A0 0 1 0 1

A1 0 0 1 1

Out 0-3 1000 0100 0010 0001

A B S C a b 0 a a b 1 b
Copyright 2003 by M.M.A. Hashem. 21

http://www.play-hookey.com/digital/logic4.html All rights reserved

Adding a clock to the mix

We can design more interesting circuits if we have a clock signal. A clock signal alternates between 0 and 1 states at a fixed frequency (e.g. 100MHz) The use of a clock enables a sequential circuit to predictable change state (and store information).
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Sequential circuit (RS flip-flop)

S Storage Cell R S 0 0 1 1
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Q Q

R Q Q 0 undef 1 1 0 0 0 1 1 Q Q
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http://www.play-hookey.com/digital/logic4.html All rights reserved

Copyright 2003 by M.M.A. Hashem.

Transparent D Flipflop
D S Q

clock signal

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D 0 0 1 1

G 0 1 0 1

Q Q D Q Q 0 1 G Q Q 1Copyright 0 2003 by M.M.A. Hashem.

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Abstractions in CS (registers)
Address
Decoder

Register File
4x1 MUX

Data In

Data Out
2 bits

2 bits

Contains four 2-bit registers

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Abstractions in CS (instructions)
Interface between the lowest level software (assembly language) and the most abstract hardware representation (instruction set architecture).
C / C++ Assembly Machine Instr

Compiler
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Assembler
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Architecture vs. Implementation

Architecture defines the interface between hardware and software.
OPCODE OPERANDS

ADD

R1, R2, #4

There can be many implementations of an architecture, e.g. 80x486, Pentium.

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Instruction Set Design

What instructions should be included?
add, branch, load/store multiply, divide, sqrt mmx_add

What storage locations?

How many registers? How much memory? Any other architected storage?

How should instructions be formatted?

0, 1, 2 or more operands?
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