2 2

1
2
2 1
1
1
=
p
p
p
=
p
C =
p
Let us note that, the flow in which density
is a function of pressure is called
barometric flow. For an isentropic
barometric flow, we get

|
|
.
|

\
|
=

|
|
.
|

\
|

=
1
2
1
2
1
2
1
2
1
p
p
p
p
1.1
Momentum and Energy
Equations
1.1.1
Momentum Equation

Momentum
Momentum is the product of mass and
velocity.

Rate of momentum is given by the
mass flow rate and velocity.

The total momentum is conserved.

Time Rate of Change of
Momentum
The time rate of change of
momentum of a body (or a fluid)
equals the net force acting on it.
i.e.,

Surfaces Control the across and

Volume Control the within Momentum
of Change of Rate Net
F

Momentum Equation
( ) ( )
}} }}}

+
c
c
=
CS CV
C C A d C dV
t
F

Surfaces Control the over and

Volume Control the across Momentum
of Change of Rate Net
F

Momentum Equation
for Steady Flow
( )
( )
}}

}}}
=
=
c
c
CS
CV
C C A d F
Hence
C dV
t

Flow, Steady For

0
Momentum Equation
for Steady 1D Flow
( )
( ) ( )
( )
1 2
1 2
1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2
2
1 1 1
2
2 2 2
C C m F
C m C m F
C C A C C A F
C A C A F
Becomes
C C A d F
CS
=
=
=
=
=

}}

Now, If an element of fluid is subjected to the
pressure gradient of dp/dx so as to move the fluid
in the direction of positive x, we can write, from the
Newtons second law of motion

( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
C
dx
dC
dx
dp
C
dx
dC
dV . dV
dx
dp
dt
dx
dx
dC
dV . dV
dx
dp
dt
dC
dV . dV
dx
dp
ma F
|
.
|

\
|
=
|
.
|

\
|

|
.
|

\
|
=
|
.
|

\
|

|
.
|

\
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
|
.
|

\
|

|
.
|

\
|
=
|
.
|

\
|

=
NOTE
For the flow to be
in the direction of
x, the pressure
should decrease
in that direction
and hence,
negative sign for
dp/dx.
By further simplifying, we get

0
0
-
= +

= +
=
|
.
|

\
|
=
|
.
|

\
|

CdC
dp
OR
CdV dp
CdC dp
C
dx
dC
dx
dp
It is the momentum equation (also known as
Eulers equation), for 1D steady, inviscid and
compressible fluid flow.
1.1.2
Energy Equation
First Law of Thermodynamics

Q = W+E
Where
Q = the net heat transfer into the system
W = the net work done by the system
E = the change in total energy of
the system

t d
dE
t
W
t
Q


equation rate energy the get we
time, to respect with ating differenti By
gz
C
h
m
E
e
gz
C
h m E
, where
E W Q
+
o
o
=
o
o
+ + = =
|
|
.
|

\
|
+ + =
A + =
2
2
2
2
Then,
( ) ( )
}} }}}
+
c
c
=
CS CV
C A d e dv e
t dt
dE

=
Surfaces Control the over and
Volume Control the across Energy
of Change of Rate Net
dt
dE
By substitution, we get
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
}} }}}
}} }}}
+
c
c
+ =
+
c
c
=
+ =
CS CV
CS CV
C A d e dV e
t dt
dW
dt
dQ
C A d e dV e
t dt
dE
dt
dE
dt
dW
dt
dQ


For a 1D steady flow system,
we get
( )
( )
( )
}}
}}
}}
}}}
+ =
+ =
+ =
=
c
c
=
CS
s
CS
s
CS
s
CV
s
m d e W Q
CdA e W Q
C A d e
dt
dW
dt
dQ
dV e
t
W W

0
For a 1D steady flow system,
with only one inlet & one outlet
( )

gz
C
h gz
C
h m W Q
e e m W Q
s
s
)
`

|
|
.
|

\
|
+ +
|
|
.
|

\
|
+ + + =
+ =
1
2
1
1 2
2
2
2
1 2
2 2

( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( ) ( )

J/kg in z z g
C C
h h w q
, Then
z z g
C C
h h
m
W
m
Q
J/s in z z g
C C
h h m W Q
s
s
kg / J
kg / J
kg / J
s / kg
s / J
s
|
|
.
|

\
|
+
|
|
.
|

\
|

+ =
+
|
|
.
|

\
|

+ =
|
|
|
|
.
|

\
|
+
|
|
.
|

\
|

+ =
1 2
2
1
2
2
1 2
1 2
2
1
2
2
1 2
1 2
2
1
2
2
1 2
2
2
2

( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )

kJ/kg in

z z g C C
h h w q
z z g C C
h h
m
W
m
Q
kJ/s in

z z g C C
h h m W Q
s
s
s
1000 2000
1000 2000
1000 2000
1 2
2
1
2
2
1 2
1 2
2
1
2
2
1 2
1 2
2
1
2
2
1 2

+
|
|
.
|

\
|

+ =

+
|
|
.
|

\
|

+ =
|
|
.
|

\
|

+
|
|
.
|

\
|

+ =

( ) ( )
( )
( )
. Const
C
h
C
h
C
h
C C
h h
then , z z and w , q If
z z g
C C
h h w q
s
s
= +
+ = +
=
|
|
.
|

\
|

+
~ = =
|
|
.
|

\
|
+
|
|
.
|

\
|

+ =
2
2 2
0
2
0 0
2
2
2
1
1
2
2
2
2
1
2
2
1 2
1 2
1 2
2
1
2
2
1 2
Taking the basic equation
0
0
2
2
2
2
= +
= +
= +
CdC dh
CdC
dh
get we ating, differenti By
. Const
C
h
By comparing the differential form of
energy equation to that of momentum
equation, we get

=
= +

= +
dp
dh
Hence
CdC
dp
and
CdC dh
0
0
Now,
. Const gz
C
RT
. Const gz
C
T c
. Const gz
C
h
p
= + +


= + +
= + +
2 1
2
2
2
2
2
enthalpy specific h T c t tan Cons
C
h
pressure constant at heat specific c
R
t tan Cons
C
T c
or,
flow isentropic in speed sound a RT t tan Cons
C a
t tan Cons
C RT
p
p p
= = = +
= =

= +
= = = +

= +

2
1 - 2
2 1 -
2 1 -
2
2
2 2
2
1.2 Sonic Velocity
Sonic velocity is the velocity of sound in the fluid.
Here, T = the temperature of the fluid in K
R = gas constant in J/kg-K
= specific heat ratio

Then, the velocity of sound is given as
RT
d
dp
a
s
=
|
|
.
|

\
|

=
1.3 Mach Number (M)
a
C
Velocity Sonic
Velocity Fluid
M = =
1.4 Stagnation condition
If a moving fluid flow is brought to rest
isentropically, without work interaction
and any change in its potential energy, it
is said to be in stagnation condition or
stagnation state.

Stagnation properties are identified by
the subsxript
o
.

For an isentropic flow
C
p
C pv
=

1
1
1
1
p
C
p
C
C
p p
=

2
2 1
1
For an isentropic flow between the state 1
and 2, the inter-relationship among
temperature, pressure and density is
given as,
( ) 1
1
2
1
1
2
1
2

|
|
.
|

\
|

|
|
.
|

\
|

=
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
p
p
T
T
From energy equation,
o
o
o
h
C
h
get we , Thus
. Const h
get we Hence,
h h and 0 C point, stagnation
. Const
C
h
= +
= +
= =
= +
2
2
0
At
2
2
2
1.4.1 Stagnation Temperature
p
2
0
2
p 0 p
2
0
2c
C
T T
2
C
T c T c
2
+ =
+ =
+ =
C
h h
T R .
C
T
T
T c
C
T
T
p
|
|
.
|

\
|

+ =
+ =
1 -
2
1
2
1
2
0
2
0
2
2
2
2
M
a
C
and a RT = =
2
0
2
2
0
2
1
1
2
1
1
M
T
T
a
c
T
T

+ =
|
.
|

\
|

+ =
1.4.2 Stagnation Velocity of Sound
0 0
RT a =
( )
( )
0 0
0 0
1 -
1 -
1 -
h a
T c a
c R
p
p
=
=

=
1.4.3 Stagnation Pressure
) /( ) (
M
T
T
p
p
1 -
2
1 -
0 0
2
1 -
1

|
.
|

\
|

+ =
|
.
|

\
|
=
1.4.4 Stagnation density
1 -
1
2
1 -
1
0 0
1 -
1
2
1
0 0
2
1 -
1
2
1 -
1

+ =
|
.
|

\
|
=

+ =
|
|
.
|

\
|
=

M
T
T
or
M
p
p
Now, considering the another from of
energy equation,
t. Cons
C a
C a
Thus,
V C where 0 a at t. Cons
C
0 C where point, stagnation at t. Cons
a
t. Cons
C a
t. Cons
C a
max o
max
o
max
= =

= +

= = =
= =

= +

= +

2 1 - 2 1 -
2
1 -
2 1 -
2 1 -
2 2
2 2
2
2
2 2
2 2
1.5 Critical states
In an isentropic flow, the flow is said to
have reached the critical state, if its
Mach Number reaches ONE.

Critical state properties are identified by
the subscript
*
, except Critical Mach
Number, which takes a constant value
of 1.
0
0
0
0
2
0
1
2
1
2
2
1
2
1 -
1
2
1 -
1
T T
T
T
T
T
T
T
1 M state, Critical For
M
T
T
*
*
*
*
|
|
.
|

\
|
+
=
+
=
+
=

+ =
=

+ =
Modifying the stagnation at critical point, we get
It is called critical temp. ratio
It is called critical temp.
Applying isentropic relations, we get
1
0
1
0 0
1
2

|
|
.
|

\
|
+
=
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
p
p
T
T
p
p
*
* *
Similarly, for density ratio
1 -
1
0
1
1
0 0
1
2


|
|
.
|

\
|
+
=

|
|
.
|

\
|
=

*
* *
T
T
1.6 Reference Velocities
( )
( )
0 0
0 0
1
1
1
h a
T c a
c R
p
p
=
=


=
1.6.1 Stagnation Velocity of Sound
0 0
RT a =
1.6.2 Maximum Fluid Velocity
0
2
2
h
C
h = +
0 0
0
2
2 2
2
T c h C
h
C
p max
max
= =
=
When h=0, C=C
max
and hence

0
0
2
0
0
0
1 -
2
1 -
2
1 -
2
2
a than greater is C
a
C
a
C
T
R
C
T c C
max
max
max
max
p max

=
=
1.6.3 Critical Velocity
At critical point, the velocity of fluid is same as
that of sound, since the Mach number is ONE.
Hence,
o
*
*
o
*
*
o
*
* *
* *
a than less is C that implies It
T
T
a
C
RT
RT
a
C
RT C
a C
1
2
0
0
+
=
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
|
|
.
|

\
|

=
=
=
Now, comparing critical velocity with
the maximum possible fluid velocity,
*
max
*
max
*
max
*
o
o
max
*
max
C than greater is C that shows Its
.
C
C
.
C
C
V
a
.
a
C
C
C
1
1
2
1
1 -
2

+
=
+

=
=
1.7 Regions of Flow
Now, considering the following form of energy
equation,
o max
o
max
a than greater is C
a
C
. Const
C a
C a max o

1 -
2
2 1 - 2 1 -
2 2
2 2
|
|
.
|

\
|

=
= =

= +

We understand that the above equation is the

equation of ellipse with C
max
as the major axis
and a
o
as the minor axis
Considering the relevant portion of the ellipse
a
C
a
O

C
max

A
M=0
M=
B
M=0.3
C
D
E
M=0.9
M=1.0
M=1.1
F
M = 5
G
Regions of Flow
Zone Mach No. Name
AB 0 to 0.3 Incompressible subsonic flow region
BC 0.3 to 0.9 Compressible subsonic flow region
D 1 Sonic point
CE 0.9 to 1.1 Compressible transonic flow region
EF 1 to 5 Compressible supersonic flow region
FG More than 5 Compressible hypersonic flow region