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Heat Transfer:

Physical Origins and Rate


Equations
Heat Transfer and Thermal Energy

What is heat transfer?

Heat transfer is thermal energy in transit due to a temperature
difference.
What is thermal energy?
Thermal energy is associated with the translation, rotation,
vibration and electronic states of the atoms and molecules
that comprise matter. It represents the cumulative effect of
microscopic activities and is directly linked to the temperature
of matter.
Heat Transfer and Thermal Energy

Transfer of energy

Occur in many chemical processes
Heat transfer occurs in combination with other separation
processes.
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heat of
on accumulati of rate

out heat
of rate

heat of
generation of rate

in heat
of rate
Modes of Heat Transfer
Conduction: Heat transfer in a solid or a stationary fluid (gas or liquid) due
to the random motion of its constituent atoms, molecules and /or electrons.
Convection: Heat transfer due to the combined influence of bulk and
random motion for fluid flow over a surface.
Radiation: Energy that is emitted by matter due to changes in the electron
configurations of its atoms or molecules and is transported as electromagnetic
waves.
Modes of Heat Transfer
Modes of Heat Transfer
Conduction and convection require the presence of temperature
variations in a material medium.
Although radiation originates from matter, its transport does not require
a material medium and occurs most efficiently in a vacuum.
Modes of Heat Transfer
Heat Transfer Rates: Conduction
2 1
x
T T dT
q k k
dx L

'' = =
1 2
x
T T
q k
L

'' =
(1.2)
Heat rate (W): x x
q q A
''
=
Application to one-dimensional, steady conduction across a
plane wall of constant thermal conductivity:
Heat Transfer Rates
q
x
A
= k
dT
dx
Fouriers Law
A rate equation that allows determination of the conduction heat flux
from knowledge of the temperature distribution in a medium
Fouriers Law
Its most general (vector) form for multidimensional conduction is:

q k T

''
= V
Implications:
Heat transfer is in the direction of decreasing temperature
(basis for minus sign).
Fouriers Law
Fouriers Law
Direction of heat transfer is perpendicular to lines of constant
temperature (isotherms).
Heat flux vector may be resolved into orthogonal components.
Fouriers Law serves to define the thermal conductivity
of the medium

/ k q T

| |
'' V
|
\ .
Heat Flux Components
(2.18)
T T T
q k i k j k k
r r z |

c c c
''
=
c c c
r
q
''
q
|
''
z
q
''
Cylindrical Coordinates:
( )
, , T r z |
sin
T T T
q k i k j k k
r r r u u |

c c c
'' =
c c c
(2.21)
r
q
'' q
u
''
q
|
''
Spherical Coordinates:
( )
, , T r | u
Cartesian Coordinates:
( )
, , T x y z
T T T
q k i k j k k
x y z

c c c
'' =
c c c
x
q
''
y
q
''
z
q
''
(2.3)
Specify appropriate form of the heat equation.
Solve for the temperature distribution.
Apply Fouriers Law to determine the heat flux.

Simplest Case: One-Dimensional, Steady-State Conduction
with No Thermal Energy Generation.

Methodology
Methodology of a Conduction Analysis
Common Geometries:
The Plane Wall: Described in rectangular (x) coordinate.
Area
perpendicular to direction of heat transfer is constant
(independent of x).
The Tube Wall: Radial conduction through tube wall.
The Spherical Shell: Radial conduction through shell
wall.
Consider a plane wall between two fluids of different temperature:
Plane Wall
The Plane Wall
Implications:
( )
Heat rate is independent of .
x
q x
( )
,1 ,2 x s s
dT kA
q kA T T
dx L
= =
(3.4)
resistance
force driving
process transfer of rate =
Plane Wall (cont.)
Conduction in a plane wall:
, t cond
L
R
kA
=
(3.6)
Convection:
,
1
t conv
R
hA
=
(3.9)
Thermal circuit for plane wall with adjoining fluids:
1 2
1 1
tot
L
R
h A kA h A
= + +
(3.12)
,1 ,2
x
tot
T T
q
R

=
(3.11)
Resistance R:
Composite Wall with Negligible
Contact Resistance:
Plane Wall (cont.)
,1 ,4
x
tot
T T
q
R

=
(3.14)
1 4
1 1 1
C tot A B
tot
A B C
L R L L
R
A h k k k h A
( ''
= + + + + =
(

Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient (U) :
A modified form of Newtons Law of Cooling to encompass multiple resistances
to heat transfer.
x overall
q UA T = A (3.17)
1
tot
R
UA
=
(3.19)
Series Parallel Composite Wall:
Plane Wall (cont.)
Circuits based on assumption of isothermal surfaces
normal to x direction or adiabatic surfaces parallel to x
direction provide approximations for .
Heat Equation:
Tube Wall
The Tube Wall
1
0
d dT
kr
r dr dr
| |
=
|
\ .
(3.23)
Is the foregoing conclusion consistent with the energy conservation requirement?
How does vary with ?
r
q''
r
What does the form of the heat equation tell us about the variation of with
in the wall?
r
q
r
Temperature Distribution for Constant : k
( )
( )
,1 ,2
,2
1 2 2
ln
ln /
s s
s
T T
r
T r T
r r r
| |

= + |
|
\ .
(3.26)
Heat Flux or Heat Rate?
Tube Wall (Cont.)
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
,1 ,2
2 1
,1 ,2
2 1
,1 ,2
2 1
ln /
2
2
ln /
2
2
ln /
r s s
r r s s
r r s s
dT k
q k T T
dr r r r
k
q rq T T
r r
Lk
q rLq T T
r r
t
t
t
t
=
'' = =
' '' = =
'' =
(3.27)
Conduction Resistance:
( )
( )
2 1
,
2 1
,
ln /
Units K/W
2
ln /
Units m K/W
2
t cond
t cond
r r
R
Lk
r r
R
k
t
t
=
' =
(3.28)
Why is it inappropriate to base the thermal resistance on a unit
surface area?
Composite Wall with
Negligible Contact
Resistance
Tube Wall (Cont.)
( )
,1 ,4
,1 ,4 r
tot
T T
q UA T T
R

= =
(3.30)
1
Note that
is a constant independent of radius.
tot
UA R

=
But, U itself is tied to specification of an interface.
( )
1
i i tot
U A R

=
(3.32)
Problem.. Solve it ??
1. Define(understand the problem, draw the diagram,
labels, what you are asked to do)
2. Think..(what you are asked to do, basic principle, any
simple solution ???, limitation???, under- or
overspecified)
3. Plan(subdivide the problem, decide what parts to
attack, theory? Principles, mathematical method and
equations used).
4. Do..(mathematical manipulation, numbers plugged,
answer generated)
5. Check(right magnitude??, reasonable??)
6. Generalized ( learn as much as possible from the
problem, important phenomena??? Something
significant???)

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