CALCULUS

AM 1001

Prepared By:
Deptt. Of Mathematics
Chitkara University
 Lecture 1

Limits
And
Continuity
 Introduction to Limits
• The concept of limit is to distinguish
calculus from algebra and trigonometry
• Here we discuss the behavior of functions
with the help of theory of limits.
• Its concept is also used to define tangent
lines to the graph of functions
 Definition of Limit
• Def: Let f (x) be defined on an open interval
about x0 , except possibly at x0 itself. Then
f(x) approaches the limit ‘L’ as x
approaches x0 i.e. lim f ( x) = L
0 x→ x
• In other words, for every number ε > 0 , there
exists a corresponding number δ > 0 such
that, f ( x) − L < ε , 0 < | x − x0 | < δ , ∀ x
 Rules of Limit
1. Sum/Difference Rule: lim[ f ( x) ± g ( x)] = L ± M
x →c

2. Product Rule: lim[ f ( x) ⋅ g ( x)] = L ⋅ M

x →c

3. Constant Multiple Rule: lim kf ( x) = kL

x →c
f ( x) L
• Quotient Rule: lim =
x →c g ( x ) M
• Power Rule If m and n are integers, then

lim[ f ( x)] = [ L]
m m
n n
x →c
 Left Hand Limit
A function f (x) is said to have a left hand
limit L at x0 , written as xlim
−
f ( x) = L
0→x

If for every number ε > 0 there exists a

corresponding numberδ > 0 such that for all
x, x0 − δ < x < x0 ⇒ f ( x) − L < ε
 Right Hand Limit
A function f (x) is said to have a right hand
limit L at x0 , written as xlim
+
f ( x) = L
0→x

If for every number ε > 0 there exists a

corresponding numberδ > 0 such that for all
x, x0 < x < x0 + δ ⇒ f ( x) − L < ε
 Introduction to Continuity
• It is a function whose outputs vary
continuously with the inputs and do not
jump from one value to another without
taking on the values in between.
• Eg. Variation in time on Earth.
 Definition of Continuity
• Def: A function f is said to be
continuous at a point x = a if the following
three conditions are satisfied:
2. f (a) is defined
3. lim
x→ a
f ( x) exists (i.e.lim f ( x) = lim f ( x) ).
+ −
x→a x→a
4. lim f ( x) = f (a)
x→ a
 Introduction to Derivatives
• These are used widely in science,
economics, medicine and in computer
science to calculate velocity and acceleration
which helps in explaining:
• the behavior of machinery and
• to define the consequences of making errors
in measurements.
 Introduction to Derivatives
•Method of Computation.
•Change in Variable with reference to other

variable.
Eg. 1. Speed.
2. Useful in Business
Eg. Demand versus price.
 Differentiation
Def: The derivative of function f with
respect to the variable x is
f ( x + h) − f ( x )
f ( x) = lim
'
h →0 h
provided the limit exists.
dy
Denoted by:
dx
which represents the rate of change of y
w.r.t. change in x
 y = f ( x)

The derivative
is the slope of
the original The derivative is defined at the end points
function. of a function on a closed interval.

y = f ′( x)
→
 y = x −3 2

( x + h) − 3 − ( x − 3)
2 2

y′ = lim
h →0 h

x + 2 xh + h − x
2 2 2
y′ = lim
h →0 h
0
y  lim 2 x  h
h 0

y′ = 2 x
A function is differentiable if it has a
derivative everywhere in its domain. It
must be continuous and smooth.
Functions on closed intervals must have
one-sided derivatives defined at the end
points.
 Steps of Differentation
1. Write expression for f (x) and f ( x + h)
2. Expand and simplify the difference
quotient f ( x + h) − f ( x )
h
'
4. Using the simplified quotient find ( x)
f
by evaluating the limit f ( x + h) − f ( x )
f ( x) = lim
'
h →0 h
 Differentiable on an Interval
• A function y = f (x)is differentiable on an open
interval if it is differentiable at each point of
interval.
• It is differentiable on a closed interval [ a, b]
if it is differentiable on the interior (a, b)and
the limits lim f (a + h) − f (a) right hand derivative
at a
+
h →0 h

and similarly for left hand derivative at b exists at

the end pionts f (b + h) − f (b)
lim−
h →0 h
 To be differentiable, a function must be continuous and
smooth.

Derivatives will fail to exist at:

2
f  x  x f  x  x 3

corner cusp

 1, x  0
f  x  
f  x  3 x  1, x  0
vertical tangent discontinuity
→
 Sum Rule
• The derivative of sum of finite number of
functions is the sum of their derivatives.
Eg. y=u+v+w+……
Then, its derivative is

dy du dv dw
= + + + .......
dx dx dx dx
 Product Rule
• The derivative of product of two functions
is equal to the product of the first and the
derivative of the second plus the product of
the second and the derivative of the first.
• Eg. If y=uv
• Then dy dv du
=u +v
dx dx dx
 Quotient Rule
• The derivative of the quotient of two
functions is equal to the product of
denominator and derivative of numerator
minus product of numerator and derivative
of denominator, whole divided by square of
denominator.
• Eg. If y=u/v
du dv
• Then v −u
dy dx dx
=
dx ( v) 2
Derivative of function of function
• Chain Rule:-
If y is function of u say y=f(u),
where u itself is a function of x say u= φ (x)
then ‘y’ is called a function of a function.
• Its derivative is given by:
dy dy du
= ∗
dx du dx
 Power chain rule
• If u (x) is a differentiable function and n
is an integer , then u n is differentiable and
d n n −1 du
u = nu
dx dx
Derivative of Trigonometric funs.
• Derivative of : sin x = cos x
• Derivative of : cos x = − sin x
Derivative of : tan x = sec x
2
•
Derivative of : cot x = csc x
2
•
• Derivative of : sec x = sec x tan x
• Derivative of : csc x = − csc x cot x
 Differentiation by Substitution
1. Pre requisite:
• Trigonometry
• Algebra
2. It reduces the given expression to be
differentiated in simple form by suitable
substitution.
Leibnitz’s Theorem(Successive Differentiation)
• Successive Differentiation: If y = f (x) is any
function then its derivative is
dy
= f ' ( x) (first derivative)
dx
further its derivative is
d2y
2
= f ''
( x) (second derivative of y)
dx
and so on, its n th derivative is
dny
n
= f n
( x)
dx
 Leibnitz’s theorem
•If u, v are two functions of x possessing
derivative of nth order then

( uv ) n = un v + nc1un −1v1 + nc2un −2v2 + ............

+ n cr u n − r vr + ....+ n cnuvn
 Absolute Extreme Values
• Let f be a function with domain D. Then f
has an absolute maximum values on D at
point ‘a’ if f ( x) ≤ f (a) for all x in D.

and an absolute minimum value on D at ‘a’

if f ( x) ≥ f (a) for all x in D.
 Local Extremes Values
• A function f has a local maximum value at
an interior point ‘a’ of its domain if f ( x) ≤ f (a)
for all x in some open interval containing
‘a’
•A function f has a local minimum value at
an interior point ‘a’ of its domain if f ( x) ≥ f (a)
for allx in some open interval containing
‘a’
 Finding Extrema
• First Derivative Theorem (Local Extreme
Values): If f has a local maximum or
minimum value at an interior point ‘a’ of its
domain and if f ' is defined at ‘a’ then f ' (a) = 0
• Critical Points: An interior point of the
domain of a function f where f ' is zero or
undefined is a critical point of f
 Taylor’s Series Expansion
• Definition: Let f be a function with
derivatives of all orders through out some
interval containing ‘a’ as an interior point.
Then the Taylor series generated by f at x = a
is ''
f (a )
f ( x) = f (a) + f (a )( x − a) +
'
( x − a) 2 + .....
2!
f n (a)
.. + ( x − a ) n + .......
n!
 Maclaurin Series
• Maclaurin series generated by f is
''
f (0) 2
f ( x) = f (0) + f (0)( x) +
'
( x) + .....
2!
f n (0) n
.. + ( x) + .......
n!

• This is Taylor series generated by f at

x=0