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The History of Global Higher Education:

The View from Ancient Egypt to Edwardian Cambridge


Les Goodchild, Santa Clara University
Welcome to the History and
Philosophy of Higher Education

Overview of Today’s Class


 Introductions
 Review of Course Syllabus
 Using Technology (Websites, Angel Postings,
and Wiki Team Discussions) and Fieldtrips—
Assistance of Gloria Hofer, Media Librarian
 Global History of Higher Education
Questionnaire—What Do You Know?
Welcome to the History and
Philosophy of Higher Education
 Discussing Course Themes:
 History, Philosophy, and Goal of the Course
 Lecture on History of Higher Education:
Ancient Schools, Greece, Rome, Cathedral
Schools in the Middle Ages, European
Universities, and Cambridge University
 Small Group Discussions
 Next week’s explorations in the history and
philosophy of higher education
Overview of Course Themes
 Overview lecture: What does it mean
to be an educated person?
 Each era offers its own idea
 For example, the University of Oxford
and the medieval mind—the
University’s motto: ”God Illumine Me”
 What do we mean by history?
 What do we mean by philosophy?
 Society, culture, and unique institutions
—schools and universities
 Forces in social life: knowledge,
power, and imagination
Five Eras: Ancient Beginnings

Origins of Ancient Higher


Education—Religious and
Priestly/Scribe
 Egypt—palaces, temples, and the
school for priest-scholars
 Mesopotamia—scribes and libraries
 India—1500 BC intellectual class of

the Brahmins who read the


Vedas and Upanishads—rise of
sciences, medicine, astronomy,
engineering, and mathematics
 China—12th-8th BC centuries and
Chou dynasty—writing, math, and
music
Second Era: Ancient Greek
Higher Education
Higher education in ancient Greece tied to citizenship
education, 500 BC to 1 AD

 First schools at Croton and Miletus—medicine and astronomers

 Pythagoras’s schools of philosophy at Metapontus and Croton—


Formal Schools
 Organized instruction, separate buildings, internal rules and
laws, and regular meetings
 Educate whole person and student adopts new way of life
 Aim is to produce capable statesman—person of arete (valor) to
assume political leadership to promote democracy in Athens
Second Era: Ancient Greek
Higher Education
 Recruitment—philosophers sought out students by
traveling to different towns

 Curriculum tied to educating the whole person—


 Course of study 3 to 4 years
 Dialectics—discourses in argumentation
 Rhetoric—rules for and forms of writing
argumentation

 School set standard for educational institutions in ancient


Greece—Plato’s Academy, School of Epicurus (342-270),
and Aristotle’s (384-322) Lyceum all follow the model
Second Era: Greek Pedagogical
Century, 450-350 BC
Classical Pedagogical Traditions Arise
 Gorgias (c.490-) School of Sophists—continue Pythagoras
tradition of teaching political knowledge through
rhetorical argumentation
 Socrates (c.470-399) and Plato (427-348) Academy
 Can political virtue be taught? Quest for finding
wisdom and truth that leads to arete within the polis
 Dialectics—method for finding truth through
analytical discourses (e.g., Republic, Laws, and Sophist)
 Organization—5 to 10 years of training after age of 20,
study of mathematics, dialectics, metaphysics, and
philosophy, equity of education (men and women
receive separate training), interior search for truth
through training, and philosophical “useless” ideal of
knowledge for political life for the polis
Second Era: Greek Pedagogical
Century, 450-350 BC
 Isocrates (436-338) School
 Formation of an intellectual elite through literary
education—how to live properly and lead the city-
state (polis)
 The rhetorical and oratorical ideal of citizenship
training where achieving the good for the polis is the
goal—developing the best solutions through ethics
 Curriculum—philosophers training comprised of:
logic (theory of knowledge), physics (doctrines about
the physical world), ethics (a sense of morality—what
is good for the polis)
 Aim to educate the whole person for political life in
the polis following epic hero values of arete and ethics
Second Era: Greek Pedagogical
Tradition, 350 BC—1 AD
 From the three schools, the development of a
common ideal of a liberal arts education arose—
the tradition of “enkuklios paideia”
 General education for free citizens with leisure time to
study involving intellectual training and military
service
 Seven liberal arts
—three involve the study of language using the noble
values of past heroes (adopted from Isocrates):
rhetoric, logic, and grammar
—four involve mathematics (adopted from Plato in
his Republic): arithmetic, geometry, astronomy, and
music
 The seven liberal arts tradition developed and
followed by the Romans
Third Era: Rome until 450

Roman Schools and the beginning of university


idea
 Roman schools and artes liberalis—School of Rhetoric in
Rome under the direction of Plotuis Gallus
 Goal training good citizens to form an elite to lead
society through training following prescribed values
and standards for character and conduct
 Curriculum follows classical texts following more the
oratorical ideal learning personal and civic virtues
 Respect for Roman values (e.g., absolute power of the
father in family life, paterfamilias; manliness, virtus;
obligation to parents, pietas, education of girls, etc.)
Third Era: Rome until 450

The Beginning of the University Ideal


 Educational renaissance in North Africa with Latin
schools and the rise of Christianity—founding of the
University of Carthage in 259
 Eastern Roman Empire and the University of
Constantinople in 425
 Curriculum in Latin, Greek, grammar, philosophy,
and law
 Rise of separate faculty for individual subject areas (3
Latin rhetoric, 5 Greek rhetoric, 10 Latin grammar, 10
Greek grammar, 1 philosophy, and 2 law)
 Becomes the first state university to be operated by
taxes in 1053
Fourth Era: Buddhist and
Islamic Universities, 450-1150
Buddhist Universities in India
 In Patna, Buddhist monks gather during the monsoons to study
 In 450, Sir Nalanda Mahavihara forms with some 20 monasteries
sending their monks to develop many learning communities (i.e.,
colleges, vihara) to educate lay students about Buddhism

 By 600, 1,500 monks taught


10,000 lay students (only 25% of
the students applying were
accepted!) there
 Curriculum—Buddhist
scriptures with language study
in Sanskrit and Pali
 Formal library created
Fourth Era: Buddhist and
Islamic Universities, 450-1150
Islamic Universities, 750-1150
 Mosques developed schools of law
where faculty (shaikh) created study
circles (students in a round) on
religious doctrine and legal issues
 30 Islamic universities later
developed. For example, in Spain
and Egypt: Cordoba in 929 and Al-
Azhar in Cairo in 970. Curricula
expanded to include all the sciences
as well as law, professors divided
into ranks of assistant, associate, and
full, and libraries were created
(400,000 volumes in Cordoba!)
 In 1064, madrassah (colleges)
formed with instructors, libraries,
scholars, scholarships, and
endowments
Fifth Era: Catholic Medieval
Universities, 1119-1550
Cathedral Schools
The origins of Catholic medieval universities began with the creation of
cathedral schools at major cathedrals in Europe, especially in France and
England.

 Pope Alexander III in 1179 required cathedrals to establish schools


and then Pope Innocent III in 1215 required these schools to be headed
by a priest who had earned a master of theology degree. This demand
fueled the need for schools
of theology at universities

The origins of the


universities at Paris,
Oxford, and Bologna came
from such schools
University Organizational
Terms
 Universitas—a group with particular skills related to an
occupation, such as a medieval guild
 Scholars at the Cathedral School at Notre Dame used
this term to identify themselves as a teaching guild
 Master of Art degreed scholar head of guild
 Facultas—”ability to do” referred to a subject division
within the guild, i.e., faculty of theology, medicine, etc.
 Studium Generale—a building or place dedicated to
learning where students were accepted to study from all
regions within Europe
 Later studium generale became universities
 College--Student residences came about when religious
communities sent their students to live together in a
particular boarding hall in town. Later these halls
were called colleges. The College de Dix-huit at Paris
became the model for many others.
Bologna, Paris, and Oxford: Models
of University Development
 Studium at Bologna focused only on the study of law, began in 1119
 Bologna developed a unique model of governance where students
actually hired and paid the rector (head of the studium) and the faculty
 Later, the students developed nation schools (Lombard, Tuscany,
Roman, Ultramontane—German lands), still students hired the rectors
University of Paris

Paris is model for medieval universities where


faculty control institution
 Origins begin in 1170 where cathedral masters teach lay
students in an upstairs boarding hall
 By 1180 students take over the boarding hall, the College
de Dix-huit
 From 1200 to 1215, faculty draw up organization as a
studium generale—Pope Gregory IX approves the
institution in 1231, gives it autonomy, approves faculty
authority over students, and grants it rights to offer the
doctorate, and finally formal charter approved in 1291
 Curriculum is comprised of faculty lecturing (lectio) on
and discussing texts (e.g., Bible and papal decrees) and
commenting on their meanings
 Great debates are held two times a year among faculty on
theological topics called—quaestiones disputatae
Students and Degrees at Paris

Three Types of Degree Students


 Students from the cathedral schools at ages 16 to 19 could
attend a studium where after 2 to 6 years they studied and
then earned a bachelor of arts (baccalarius artium), after
passing a comprehensive verbal examination (a
determination). Curriculum—the liberal arts—comprised
of:
 Trivium—rhetoric, logic, and grammar
 Quadrivium—arithmetic, geometry, astronomy, and
music
 Master’s level had two types of degrees. After two years
of study and lecturing, they received a licentiate (license).
After six more months, admitted to master’s guild,
earning a master of arts and given a biretta (cap) and
book.
 Next they studied law, medicine, or theology for 5 years
and lectured for 3 years. They were given a jus ubique
docendi (“able to teach anywhere)—doctor of philosophy.
University of Oxford, 1133

 Oxford begins as a cathedral school, although students gather under a


master for higher studies in 1133.
 In 1200 formally chartered as a universitas magistrorum et scolarium
Oxonie—society of
masters and scholars at
Oxford.
Follows Paris pattern as
a center of theological
study for priests, its first
college, Merton, founded
in 1264
Cambridge University, 1231

Cambridge’s Historic Role in American Higher Education


 Similar to Oxford, masters and students formed a studium
at Cambridge in 1231 and by 1318 it receive a papal
charter to offer the doctorate—unlike Oxford
 After Henry VIII and Elizabeth I separated—what would
become—the Anglican Church from Rome, these English
universities became the center for Protestant theological
education as well as other studies after 1581.
 A group of strong evangelicals called Puritans gathered
for study at Cambridge’s Emmanuel College. Later 100 of
these graduates would come to Plymouth and Boston and
eventually found Harvard College in 1636.
Harvard College, 1636

 Next Week: The History of Harvard College/University


 http://www.news.harvard.edu/guide/intro/hist2.html
 http://www.news.harvard.edu/guide/intro/index.html
References

Bowen, J. (1981). A history of western education. Vol. 1, The


ancient world: Orient and Mediterranean, 2000 B.C.—A.D.
1054. New York: St. Martin’s Press.
Bowen, J. (1981). A history of western education. Vol. 2,
Civilization of Europe, sixth to sixteenth century. New York:
St. Martin’s Press.
Bowen, J. (1981). A history of western education. Vol. 3, The
modern west, Europe and the new world. New York: St.
Martin’s Press.
Goodchild, L. F. (1992/1997). Religious vocations (theological
schools and seminaries). In The Encyclopedia of Higher
Education. Vol. 2: Analytic Perspectives: The Institutional
Fabric of the Higher Education System. 4 vols. Oxford:
Pergamon Press, pp. 1200-1217.
Stanton, M. S. (1990). Higher learning in Islam: The classical
period, A.D. 700-1300. Savage, MD: Rowman & Littlefield
Academic Ethics as an
Applied Ethic
An applied ethic is an attempt to bring
ethical theory to bear on real problems in
various settings, such as, medicine, law,
business, or
—in our case—
schools and colleges

Academic ethics or educational ethics


addresses the moral problems which arise
by suggesting various principles to
promote what is good and right in
resolving these difficulties.
Theory and Method
Classical ethical theories offer two major perspectives
to help us resolve dilemmas:

 Kant's universal moral rules (deontology)


—“a duty to keep one’s promises”

 Bentham's measuring the consequences


of action (consequentialism)
—”what is the great good for the greatest
number of people?”

These theories provide useful principles in


determining a morally justified outcome.

Moreover, such an ethical decision requires an


explicit method of justification. Employing ethical
principles and a method of justification represent the
core of applied ethics.
Ethical Stress Points
The need for an ethic can be particularly acute when
schools and communities or colleges and universities,
and other educational groups are faced with economic
difficulties.

Questions may arise about some of these concerns:


 students’ difficulty in paying for tuition, fees, and
books,
 lower pay for some teachers and adjunct faculty,
 truthfulness in marketing or disclosure of test rests,
 advising students on degree and credential
programs,
disadvantaged schools, or rural colleges,
 pressure for grades and graduation to secure jobs
encourages cheating on exams and papers,
 providing for adequate staff in schools and college
campuses, as well as
 prohibiting gifts, gratuities, and other
compensation among faculty and staff.
Legal Ethics and Academic Ethics

In many of these issues, administrators or faculty often use the law as the
standard for determining policy and action, if it applies.
However, such recourse confuses the role of the law with ethics. The
law provides a mandate which the community has sanctioned as
conforming to its norms or customs. It provides only a minimal
standard for determining what is right or wrong in a particular
situation, since the law has developed in response to societal pressure.
Limits to Legal
Considerations
 First, "where the law is silent, anything goes" is a mentality often
taken when the questions of cost win over concerns for human
good and welfare.
 Second, law of its very nature is not so much a matter of reason as it
is a product of communal will. Law is a product of the courts and
the legislature rather than a weighing of rational arguments for
correct behavior which considers entitlements and human
relationships.
 Third, using the law as bases for ethical judgment assumes concepts
of fairness or justice may be equated with law (Stevens, 1979, pp.
118-222). Such moral legalism falls far short of promoting
universalizable principles which insure the betterment for all.
Limits to Legal
Considerations
Decisions and actions derived from the law are often confined to the letter of the law.

This limitation underscores how ethics goes beyond the law. Ethics is not confined to prescriptive
mandates, but may consider all aspects of a particular moral dilemma. Ethical judgments, based on
rational principles, focus on the good for others. These characteristics point to the professional
orientation of applied ethics.

Responsible persons acting in professional capacities must act ethically:


They must be guided by their clients' interests rather than their own; and

They need to pursue their occupational activities according to certain


universal norms, rules, and principles.

These needs should be the driving force in developing a comprehensive ethic among our partners
and our students.
Academic Ethics Sources
Four basic sources of ethical principles enable us to make ethical decisions within schools,
colleges, universities, and other educational organizations.

 First, educational ethics & academic ethics support professional codes from associations to promote
ethical behavior among teachers and administrators within schools and academe.

 The second source of ethical theories, which have historically been the strongest in moral reasoning,
are: (a) the classical ethical theories of virtue, deontology, and consequentialism as well as (b)
contemporary ethical theories of rights and justice.

 A third source of ethical principles comes


from psychological studies of moral reasoning
(e.g., Kohlberg’s conventional morality).

 A fourth source of ethical principles comes


from religious ethical theories (e.g., Judaism,
Catholicism, Islam, Protestantism, etc.)
The Idea of Applied Ethics and
Its Meaning for Us as Professionals
 Oxford English Dictionary—the Greek
etymology of the word ethikos is “to do”

 The Greek idea of community, the polis, was


where one learned about what type of actions
where approved—i.e., what was valued

 Everything we do—every act—thus has a


values and an ethical implication for our
community—ethics can be best seen for our
purposes as rules or norms of conduct in
leading our professional lives
Ourselves and our Values
As human beings who were born and
raised in various communities, our values
are “the beliefs and attitudes of a person
forming our frames of reference.”

Clyde Kluckhohn further wrote: “A


value is a conception, explicit or implicit,
distinctive of an individual or
characteristic of a group, of the desirable,
which includes the selection from
available modes (types of actions) means
(ways of actions) and ends (reasons—
why) of action.”
Values, Community, and Ethics

In other words, what is important


here is that what we desire is related
to our distinctive group.

So our desires, such as love, care,


hope, fairness, or justice, are directly
linked to our professional
community.

For our purposes in the course, our


values and our ethics are
deeply interrelated to our
moral vision.
Favorite References
 Bauchamp, T. (2001). Philosophical ethics: An introduction to
moral philosophy, 3rd ed. New York: McGraw-Hill.
 Harrod, H. (1981). The human center: Moral agency in the
social world. Philadelphia: Fortress Press.
 Kultgen, J. (1988). Ethics and professionalism. Philadelphia:
University of Pennsylvania Press.
 MacIntyre, A. (1984). After virtue, 2nd ed. Notre Dame,
IN: University of Notre Dame Press.

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