Distillation

By: Eko Ariyanto, ST., MChemEng

Chemical Engineering Department
Engineering Faculty
Muhammadiyah University of Palembang
DISTILLATION

Separation of mixtures of liquids into their components
- most important processes of the chemical industry
- a common method for this separation is distillation

Distillation is based on the fact that the vapour
of a boiling mixture will be richer in the
components that have lower boiling points.
Therefore, when this vapour is cooled and
condensed, the condensate will contain more
volatile components. At the same time, the
original mixture will contain more of the less
volatile material.
Distillation is a process wherein a liquid or vapour mixture of two or more
substances is separated into its component fractions of desired purity, by
the application and removal of heat.

What is Distillation
Examples include:
separation of alcohol and water
liquid air into N
2
, O
2
and Air
crude petroleum into gasoline, kerosene, fuel oil and lubricating
stock

Differences in BPs of components (vapour pressure characteristics
of liquid mixtures) enables separation

Vapour pressure of a liquid ?
Equilibrium pressure exerted by molecules leaving and entering the
liquid surface.

Distillation occurs - due to differences in the relative volatility (ratio
of vps) of the components in the liquid mixture
Important points concerning vapour pressure are:
-energy input raises vapour pressure

-vapour pressure is related to boiling

-a liquid is said to boil when its vapour pressure equals the surrounding
pressure

-the ease with which a liquid boils depends on its volatility

-liquids with high vapour pressures (volatile liquids) will boil at lower
temperatures

-the vapour pressure and hence the boiling point of a liquid mixture
depends on the relative amounts of the components in the mixture
In distillation Vapor rich in more volatile components
original mixture - rich in less volatile material
columns are designed to achieve efficient separation

Most of the process engineers
- have a fair idea what distillation means

Some important aspects which are overlooked from the
manufacturing point of view are:
-distillation is the most common separation method
-it consumes enormous amounts of energy, both in terms of
cooling and heating requirements
-it can amount to more than 50% of plant operating costs
Possible ways to reduce operating costs of existing units include:

- improve their efficiency and operation
- via process optimisation and control

To achieve this improvement it is essential to have

- a thorough understanding of basic distillation principles
- familiarity with the design aspects of distillation systems
TYPES OF DISTILLATION COLUMNS
Batch Columns:
The feed to the column is introduced
batch-wise. That is, the column is
charged with a 'batch' and then the
distillation process is carried out.
When the desired task is achieved, a
next batch of feed is introduced.
(Batch is always unsteady-state, used
in organic chemistry lab)
Disadvantages:
large amounts of material
long residence times
Continuous Columns:
Continuous columns process a
continuous feed stream. No
interruptions occur unless there
is a problem with the column or
surrounding process unit.
Advantages:
More stages - improvement in
separation
Continuous columns can be further classified according to:
-the nature of the feed that they are processing

-binary column - feed contains only two components

-multi-component column - feed contains more than two
components

-the number of product streams they have

-multi-product column - column has more than two product
streams
-extractive distillation - where the extra feed appears in the
bottom product stream (solvent added near the top of the
column)
-azeotropic distillation - where the extra feed appears at the top
product stream
-(eg. Benzene added to alcohol/water mixture, with ternary mixture
boiling at 64.85C lower than binary bp 78C)
(Mixture that retains the same composition in the V state as in the L state when distilled)
-the type of column internals
-tray column - where trays of various designs are used to
hold up the liquid to provide better contact between vapour
and liquid, hence better separation
packed column - where instead of trays, 'packings' are used
to enhance contact between gas and liquid
-extractive distillation - where the extra feed appears in the
bottom product stream (solvent added near the top of the
column)
-azeotropic distillation - where the extra feed appears at the top
product stream
-(eg. Benzene added to alcohol/water mixture, with ternary mixture
boiling at 64.85C lower than binary bp 78C)
(Mixture that retains the same composition in the V state as in the L state when distilled)
-the type of column internals
-tray column - where trays of various designs are used to
hold up the liquid to provide better contact between vapour
and liquid, hence better separation
packed column - where instead of trays, 'packings' are used
to enhance contact between gas and liquid
FLASH DISTILLATION
In flashing operation a liquid is introduced into a
chamber at a pressure below that of the vapor
pressure of the feed liquid. A portion of the liquid
immediately vaporises or flashes, hence the name.
used on a large scale
in petroleum refining

not effective for separating
closely boiling mixtures
What is Flash Distillation?
FLASH DISTILLATION
F x
F
D x
D
B x
B
F = Feed flow rate

concentration = z
F

specific enthalpy h
F


D = distillate or top product (vapour)
flow rate

concentration = y*
D

specific enthalpy H
D


B = bottoms product (liquid) flow rate

concentration = x
B

specific enthalpy = h
B

Designer of a flash system needs to know

- P and T of the flash drum

- size of the flash drum

- the liquid and vapor compositions

- P, T and flow rate of the feed entering the drum or column

- how much the original feed has to be pressurised and heated


Pressures must be chosen such that at the feed pressure, the feed is below
its bp and remains liquid

At the pressure of the flash drum or column, the feed must be above its
boiling point and some of it vaporises
Balances:
Mass
F D B = +
Component
F z D y B x
F D B
= +
Enthalpy
F h Q D H B h
F D B
+ = +
Solving simultaneously gives:
=

=
+
|
\

|
.
|
+
|
\

|
.
|
B
D
y z
x z
H h
Q
F
h h
Q
F
D F
B F
D F
B F
On an x-y diagram, gives operating line
through (z
F
,z
F
), slope -B/D
x
y
-B/D
z
F
x
D
x
B
F x
F
D x
D
B x
B
F x
F

D x
D

x
F

T-x data (T - temperature in K and x mol fraction of hexane in liquid):

399 378 367 357 350 344
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0

T-y data (T - temperature in K and y mol fraction of hexane in vapor):

399 393 387 378 367 344
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
Hexane-octane mixture containing 60 mol% hexane is flashed
at 1 atm. If one-fourth of the feed is vaporised what are the
compositions of the product streams? Extract equilibrium
compositions from the following T-xy data.
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
1
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
x
y
Let f = D/F
F = D + B
Fx
F
= Dy
D
+ Bx
B

y
D
= {-(1-f)/f}x
B
+(1/f)x
F

Locate the intersection
of material balance line
with the equilibrium
curve and read liquid
and vapor compositions

x = 52%
y = 86%
Sections of Continuous Distillation
Columns
A typical distillation contains several
major components:
-a vertical shell where the separation of
liquid components is carried out
-column internals such as trays/plates
and/or packings which are used to
enhance component separations
-a reboiler to provide the necessary
vaporisation for the distillation process
-a condenser to cool and condense the
vapour leaving the top of the column
-a reflux drum to hold the condensed
vapour from the top of the column so that
liquid (reflux) can be recycled back to
the column
The vertical shell houses the column
internals and together with the condenser
and reboiler, constitute a distillation
column.

Normally feed column near centre

Section above feed: enriching or
RECTIFYING section
removes less volatile components from vapour
(vapour is enriched in the volatile component)

Section below feed: STRIPPING section
the volatile component is stripped from liquid

Liquid coming down REFLUX

Top product DISTILLATE

Bottom product RESIDUE or
BOTTOMS.
Temperature - highest at the reboiler

Decreases progressively up the tower

Reaches a minimum (T) in the
condenser

Fractionator is quite literally a heat
engine
- separating feed mixture into
relatively pure products.

Heat addition to the system at a high
level and rejected at a lower level.
Fractional distillation
F x
F
D x
D
B x
B
V
1
L
0 n
Overall balances:
F D B
= +
Fz Dx Bx
F D B
= +
=


=


D
F
x x
x x
B
F
x x
x x
F B
D B
D F
D B
and
Net Flow Rates:
Rectifying Section:
Condenser:
D V L
=
1 0
Total D V L
n n
=
+
1
( = constant)
Conventions:
Number trays from the top down
(i.e. in direction of L-phase flow)
A bar over a flowrate, e.g. refers
to the stripping section
L
Component flow:
Dx V y L x V y L x
D n n n n
= =
+ + 1 1 0 0 1 1
= constant
Stripping section:
B L V L V
N N m m
= =
+ + 1 1
Bx L x V y L x V y
B N N N N m m m m
= =
+ + + + 1 1 1 1
= constant (m refers to intermediate stage close to
feed point)
F x
F
D x
D
B x
B
V
1
L
0 n
F x
F

B x
B

D x
D

F x
F
D x
D
B x
B
V
1
L
0 n
Operating Lines:
Rectifying section:
1
0 0 1 1
1
1
+ +
+

+ =
n
n
n
n
n
V
x L y V
x
V
L
y
D
n
n
n
n
n
x
V
D
x
V
L
y
1 1
1
+ +
+
+ =
eliminating V
n+1
:
y
L
L D
x
D
L D
x
n
n
n
n
n
D +
=
+

+
1
F x
F
D x
D
B x
B
V
1
L
0 n
Stripping section:
y
L
V
x
V y L x
V
m
m
m
m
N N N N
m
+
+
+ +
+
= +

1
1
1 1
1
But
V y L x Bx
N N N N B + +
=
1 1

y
L
V
x
B
V
x
m
m
m
m
m
B +
+ +
=
1
1 1
eliminating V
m+1
:

y
L
L B
x
B
L B
x
m
m
m
m
m
B +
=

1
If L
n
or
L
m
vary

curved operating lines.

If enthalpy changes significant:

must use Ponchon-Savarit Method with

enthalpy/concentration (H-x) diagram.
If not significant:
called CONSTANT MOLAL OVERFLOW

use mole units

constant L
n
and
L
m

drop subscripts

ignore enthalpy changes

use McCabe-Thiele method based on

x-y diagram only
Inherent assumption in McCabe-
Thiele method -

distillation column is at the same
pressure

One can use constant pressure x-y
diagram.

Actually P decreases from bottom
to top.

Why??

A driving force is necessary for
the vapor to flow upward.
x
y
x
D
x
B
L/(L+D)
L/(L-B)
OPERATING LINES:
D n n
x
D L
D
x
D L
L
y
+
+
+
=
+1
(rectifying)
y
L
L B
x
B
L B
x
m m B +
=

1
(stripping)
On x-y diagram:
rectifying: through (x
D
,x
D
), slope
L
L D +
stripping: through (x
B
,x
B
), slope
L
L B
Adequate design problem definition:
Design a fractionator column to produce a desired separation for known F,
z
f
, x
B
& x
D
.
Material balance

yields B and D
Reflux quantity needed for the design
Relux ratio - is a common way of expressing the reflux amount
Reflux ratio

R
L
D
V D
D
D
= =

so
y
R
R
x
x
R
n
D
D
n
D
D
+
=
+
+
+
1
1 1

line with a y-intercept of x

D
/(R
D
+1) passing through (x
D
,x
D
) with
slope=R
D
/R
D
+1
OPERATING LINES:
D n n
x
D L
D
x
D L
L
y
+
+
+
=
+1
(rectifying)
y
L
L B
x
B
L B
x
m m B +
=

1
(stripping)
On x-y diagram:
rectifying: through (x
D
,x
D
), slope
L
L D +
stripping: through (x
B
,x
B
), slope
L
L B
x
y
x
D
R/(R+1)
x /(R+1)
D
Total Condenser
D x
D
V
1
L
0
x
y
x
D
= y = x
1 0
Total condensers - Simpler and cheaper
In a total condenser, all of the vapor leaving
the top of the column is condensed.
Consequently, the composition of the vapor
leaving the top tray y
1
is the same as that of
the liquid distillate product and reflux, x
D
.
Partial Condenser
In a partial condenser, the vapor is only partially liquified. The compositions of
these three streams (V
1
, D, and R) are different. Normally, D (composition y
D
)
is in equilibrium with R (composition x
D
).
A partial condenser functions as an equilibrium separation stage, so columns
with a partial condenser effectively have an extra ideal stage (extra condensing
and control equipment required)
Reboilers
Most reboilers are partial reboilers
meaning that they only vaporize part
of the liquid in the column base.
Vapor leaving the reboiler is in
equilibrium with the liquid leaving
as bottom product
Reboiler acts as an ideal plate.


y
N+1
is in equilibrium with x
B

x
y
x
B
y
N+1
B
m
m
m
m
m
x
B L
B
x
B L
L
y

=
+1
Determination of number of stages
Rectifying
section
y
L
L D
x
D
L D
x
n
n
n
n
n
D +
=
+
+
+
1
Stripping
section
y
L
L B
x
B
L B
x
m
m
m
m
m
B +
=

1
McCabe-Thiele: insignificant enthalpy changes
constant flows
=> constant molal overflow conditions
Ponchon-Savarit:
enthalpy changes or heat loss important
requires use of H-x diagram
Reflux ratio:
R
L
D
V D
D
D
= =

Upper operating line

two points i.e. (x

D
,x
D
) and
y-intercept.
Lower operating line

same manner

line will pass through the
point (x
B
, x
B
)

second point by
considering feed condition
Construction of stages
Feed Conditions
Saturated liquid
Vapor liquid mixture
Saturated vapor
Sub-cooled liquid ??

Superheated vapor??
FEED LINE:
q = fraction of the feed that is liquid at column
conditions
The feed stream increases
liquid by q.F and vapour by (1-q).F
Consequently,
( )
L L qF V V q F = + = + and 1
This can be rewritten as
( )
L L qF V V q F = = and 1
Operating Lines are:
B D
Bx x L y V and Dx Lx Vy = + =
Subtracting gives:
( ) ( )
y V V L L x Dx Bx
D B
= + +
Substituting for
L L
and
V V
gives:
( )
y q F qFx Dx Bx
D B
1 = + +
But
Dx Bx Fx
D B F
+ =

Feed Line is given by

y
q
q
x
x
q
F
=

+
1 1
passes through (x
F
,x
F
); slope

q
q 1
passes through intersection of rectifying and
stripping operating lines
Feed Plate Location
q = moles of liquid in stripping section that result from each mole of feed (or
fraction of the feed that is liquid at column conditions)
Feed Type q slope
Cold Feed (below bubble point) > 1 > 1
Saturated Liquid (at bubble pt.) 1 Infinite
Mixed V-L >0 & <1 < 0
Saturated Vapour (at dew point) 0 0
Superheated Vapour (
|
dew pt) < 0 >0 & <1
Slope of q-line is located graphically

q-line is the locus of intersection of upper
and lower operating lines
Feed Type q slope
Cold Feed (below bubble point) > 1 > 1
Saturated Liquid (at bubble pt.) 1 Infinite
Mixed V-L >0 & <1 < 0
Saturated Vapour (at dew point) 0 0
Superheated Vapour (
|
dew pt) < 0 >0 & <1
for saturated vapour:
( )
q
c T T
P b F
L
= +

1

where c
PL
liquid specific heat
T
b
bubble point
T
F
feed temperature

enthalpy change on completely

vaporizing 1 mole of saturated liquid
feed to saturated vapour.
for superheated vapour:
( )
q
c T T
P F d
V
=

where c
PV
vapour specific heat
T
d
dew point.
Steps for the complete column:

Locate x
D
, x
F
, and x
B

Locate the feed line: slope = -q/(1-q)

Determine the y-intercept for the rectifying
line, x
D
/(R
D
+1)

Draw in rectifying line

Draw in stripping line

Calculate the number of stages from x
0
downwards.
Get the number of stages (N)
Get the location of the feed stage (n
F
)
Important note: Remove one stage for reboiler
and one for partial condenser, if used
EXAMPLE
Feed to a column is 1000 kg-mol/hr. The feed composition is
0.5; the top product composition is 0.9; the bottoms composition
is 0.05. The equilibrium curve is given by

y x * =
For saturated liquid feed and a reflux ratio of 2, determine the
number of stages required and the position of the feed stage.
x
y
z
F
x
D
x
B
x
y
z
F
x
D
x
B
Start at the top of the tower
with known distillate
composition, x
D
.

Proceed horizontally to the
left to find y
1
= y
D
on the
equilibrium curve.

Now drop vertically
downward to read off x
1
.

The point at which x
1

intersects the operating line
gives y
2
(by material
balance)

Repeated application of
this procedure gives number
of stages required to attain
the given separation.
Sub-cooled
liquid
Sat liquid
Vapr/liq mixture
Saturated vapor
Superheated
vapor
Feed condition
Stage construction
Y-intercept
x
d
/R+1

(x
d
, y
d
)

(x
f
, y
f
)
(x
b
, y
b
)
Sat vapour
1
6
5
2
4
3
Total reflux
(x
d
, y
d
)

(x
f
, y
f
)
(x
b
, y
b
)
Minimum number of stages
As R
D
changes, N changes
Rectifying slope = R
D
/(R
D
+1) (always < 1)
As R increases, slope increases
At R = , V=L, slope = 1
TOTAL REFLUX (returning all condensed
overhead to the column)
maximum separation in every stage
Minimum N
BUT
No product, bottoms flows
NO feed flow
L = V, L/V = 1, D = 0
L
b
= V
b
, L
b
/V
b
= 1, B = 0 (45 line)

Reflux ratio
R
L
D
V D
D
D
= =



y
R
R
x
x
R
n
D
D
n
D
D
+
=
+
+
+
1
1 1

Minimum reflux
R
min
< R <
R
min
corresponds to minimum slope of rectifying line
Generally occurs when:

feed line and operating lines intersect at the
equilibrium line
infinite number of stages
For constant o, Fenske equation can also be used
x
y
As the reflux ratio is further reduced,
the intersection of the operating lines
move along the feed line toward the
equilibrium curve, the area on the
diagram available shrinks, and the
number of steps increases.
When either one or both of
the operating lines touch
equilibrium curve, the
number of steps necessary
to cross the point of
contact becomes infinite.
Can also occur if operating line is tangent to equilibrium line:
x
y
Invariant zone or pinch
zone where there is no
change
in either L or V
concentrations
from plate to plate
Optimum reflux
Represents an economic compromise between
the investment cost of a tall tower at low R and
high operating cost at high R.
The costs of heating and cooling will increase
with reflux.
Optimum reflux ratio is usually 1.1 - 1.5 R
min
Total costs will be operating costs plus capital
costs
Capital Costs
Operating Costs
Total Costs
Optimum Reflux
C
o
s
t

(Heating and cooling costs)
(Fixed costs)
~ 1.1 to 1.5 R
min

R
min

R
min
requires infinite plates, fixed costs will be infinite, operating costs
lower
With R no of plates decrease, Column Dia increases due to large quantities
of L and V, Duties larger
Constant Molal Overflow
This occurs if & only if:
The molar heats of vaporisation of the binary
components are identical
Sensible heat distributions are negligible
Heats of mixing are negligible
With these criteria, internal energy balances around each
plate in the tower become trivial & molar flow rates of V
and L will be constant in any section of the tower. For this
case, we can use the graphical procedure of McCabe-Thiele
method to calculate no. of stages.
For many binary systems, this criteria is not valid and constant
molal overflow is a bad assumption.

Use of McCabe-Thiele analysis leads to underspecifying the
equipment (a situation to be definitely avoided)

So what are the alternatives???

Tedious trial and error procedure to solve coupled mass and energy
balances
OR
Ponchon analysis (this does not assume the liquid and vapor flow
rates are constant in each section of the tower)
The only assumption made with Ponchon method is that there are
no heat losses through the column walls.
Ponchon graphical methods
What is a Ponchon diagram?
Ponchon diagram is an enthalpy-concentration
chart
- used in solving energy balance problems as the
enthalpies can be read directly from the chart.
- charts are used to analyse binary distillation
processes
- suitable for systems which exhibits a large heat
of solution
- no significant heat losses from the column
What is a Ponchon
method???
It is a combination of
xy data with H-xy
charts to obtain
graphical solution of
coupled mass and
energy balances.

How charts are prepared??
heat capacity data (of pure and mixtures of liquids or
vapours) sat. L and V enthalpies
T-xy data for the system (bp, dp, equilibrium comp)

Application distillation, crystallization or
extraction
Enthalpy determination
Determination of the enthalpy of a
saturated liquid
37.6 mol% solution of benzene in toluene
at 1 atm
Temperature of the final state is 369.2 K
Three stages for determining enthalpy
Heating of pure benzene and toluene
Mixing of two pure liquids to form the
desired composition
Enthalpy determination
Enthalpy determination
Zero
(no heat of
mixing)
Enthalpy determination
Determination of the enthalpy of a saturated
vapor
59.6 mol% benzene and 40.4mol% in toluene at 1
atm
Temperature of the final state is 369.2 K

Three stages for determining enthalpy
Heating of pure benzene and toluene
Vaporise pure components
Heat/cool pure components from bp to equilibrium
temperature
Mixing of two pure liquids to form the desired
composition
Enthalpy determination
F x
F
D x
D
B x
B
FLASH CALCULATIONS
Balances:
Mass
F D B = +
Component B D F
x B y D x F + =
Enthalpy B D F
H B H D H F + =
If F, x
F
and H
F
are known, calculate D, B, x
B
, y
D
?
What do we need??
xy diagram for a given system
H-xy diagram

6 unknowns i.e., the enthalpy, composition and molar flow
of vapor and liquid products

6 relations between the unknowns (MB and EB equations),
a xy relation, and 2 composition-enthalpy relations in H-xy
diagram (one for saturated liquid and one for saturated
vapor).
Two approaches to solve this problem

Algebraic solution
(a trial and error calculation)

Graphical method
(which is Ponchon-Savarit method)












Algebraic method
1. Guess H
D
& find y
D
from H-xy
2. With known y
D
, x
B
is read from xy
diagram
3. Using H-xy find H
B
4. Place values of x
B
and y
D
into balance
equations to get B, D & H
B
5. Calculate a new value of H
D
from B, D
& H
B
6. Compare this value of H
D
with the
initial guessed value
7. Adjust H
D
& repeat the entire
calculation until consistent values of H
D
are obtained
Graphical method
Combine xy data with H-xy by placing tie lines on H-xy
diagram which connect points corresponding to vapor and
liquid phases in equilibrium. Tie lines are drawn between
the vapor and liquid equilibrium compositions.
Vapor &liquid streams in equilibrium one tie line
should represent this situation.
But which tie line and what additional information can we
extract from this exercise???
Balances:

Mass
F D B = +
(1)

Component B D F
x B y D x F + =
(2)

Enthalpy B D F
H B H D H F + =
(3)
D/B = (x
F
-x
B
)/ (y
D
-x
F
) (4)
(substitute F in mass balance equations and rearranging)

D/B = (H
F
-H
B
)/(H
D
-H
F
) (5)
(substitute F in energy balance equations and rearranging)

Since L.H.S. of (4) & (5) equations are equal, we get
(y
D
-x
F
)/(H
D
-H
F
) = (x
F
-x
B
)/ (H
F
-H
B
) (6)
(y
D
-y
F
)/(H
D
-H
F
) = (x
F
-x
B
)/ (H
F
-H
B
) (6)
Equation 6 indicates that a line connecting points on the H-xy
diagram representing streams F & D must have same slope as
a line connecting points representing streams F & B. Thus,
points linked to streams B, D & F must all be on a single
straight line.
A necessary condition for the
application of the lever-arm rule is that
points corresponding to the feed and
product streams be on a single straight
line. Equation 6 assures that this
necessary condition is satisfied.
For a given problem if x
F
, H
F
are known, it can
be located on H-xy diagram. Only one tie line
passes through this point.
The ends of tie line, points b and d, give
corresponding enthalpies of streams B & D,
respectively.
Molar flow rates B & D by application of lever-
arm principle:
B/F = (y
D
-x
F
)/(y
D
-x
B
) = (H
D
-H
F
)/(H
D
-H
B
) (7)
This equation results from material balance
equation by solving for D and substituting in
other balance equations.
Above equation relates the quotient of liquid
product and feed rate to ratios of composition
and enthalpies.












B/F = (y
D
-x
F
)/(y
D
-x
B
) = (H
D
-H
F
)/(H
D
-H
B
) (7)
Taking line bd in Figure as the hypotenuse of a right
traingle, equation 7 allows us to write:
B/F =
bd
fd
(8)
D/F =
bd
bf
(9)
D/B =
fd
bf
(10)
From molar feed rate & location of the tie line
- can determine the molar flow rates B & D
- by measuring the length of line segments using
equations 8-10.
How to deal with continuous binary distillation columns?
We begin Ponchon analysis by writing balance equations around
the column (similar to flash columns) assuming no heat loss
through the column walls:

FH
F
+q
rb
=B H
B
+D H
D
+q
cd
(11)
where q
rb
& q
cd
refer to the duty of the reboiler and condenser,
respectively, in BTU/h.
Since the column reflux ratio, r = L
0
/D is set, the condenser duty
may be found using

q
cd
=(L
0
+ D)
D
= D (1+r)
D
(12)
where
D
is the latent heat of vaporization of the distillate product.
F FH H
F F
+ + q q
r rb b
= = B B H H
B B
+ + D D H H
D D
+ + q q
c cd d
( (1 11 1) )
D can be determined from balance equations. We now rearrange equation 11 to give
FH
F
= ((H
B
+ q
rb
/B) B) + ((H
D
+ q
cd
/D) D) (13)
And substitute from F from balance equations in component balance and equation 13,
& rearranging will yield
(x
F
x
B
)/(H
F
(H
B
q
rb
/B)) = (x
D
x
F
)/((H
D
+ q
cd
/D) H
F
) (14)
Equation 14 indicates that the points x
B
, (H
B

q
rb
/B); H
F
, x
F
; and x
D
, (H
D
+ q
cd
/D) must
all lie on a single straight line on an
enthalpy-composition diagram.
- Knowing q
cd
, one can place the point
(H
D
+ q
cd
/D), x
D
on H-xy diagram as
point d.
- Next one can place the feed point f at
H
F
, x
F
and extend a line through points
d and f to a vertical line placed at x = x
B

to point b.
- Point b must have the coordinates (H
B

q
rb
/B), x
B
.
Feed was taken as saturated liquid for this
sample analysis
(x
F
x
B
)/(H
F
(H
B
q
rb
/B)) = (x
D
x
F
)/((H
D
+ q
cd
/D) H
F
) (14)
Procedure for calculation of no. of
stages:
Draw a vertical line at x = x
D

extending from point d to the sat. liq.
line.

This line intersects the sat. vap. line at
point v
1
and sat. liq. line at point l
0
.

Both the distillate product and reflux
are sat. liquids with composition x
D

and must be represented by point l
0
.

Likewise, the vapor leaving the top
plate, stream V
1
, has a composition x
D

and is represented by point v
1
.
Since the liquid on the top plate, stream L
1
, is
in equilibrium with stream V
1
, the
composition and enthalpy of stream L
1
may
be found at point l
1
by drawing a tie line from
point v
1
to the saturated liquid line.
The tie line is easily constructed by reading
the vapor composition at point v
1
and finding
the corresponding equilibrium liquid
composition from an xy diagram.
Alternatively, an xy diagram may be
superimposed on an enthalpy-composition
diagram. The liquid phase mole fraction
corresponding to the xy curve is then read
from horizontal axis and the vapor phase
mole fraction read from the right-hand
vertical axis.
To continue, a balance is written around the top plate of the column and
condenser. An energy balance yields
V
2
H
v2
= L
1
H
L1
+ D (H
D
+ q
cd
/D) (15)
H
v
, H
L
refer to vapor and liquid enthalpy.
Component and total mass balances are
V
2
y
2
= L
1
x
1
+ Dx
D
(16)
V
2
= L
1
+ D
1
(17)
If we substitute for V
2
from eq. 17 in eqns 15, 17 yields
(y
2
x
1
)/(H
V2
H
L1
) = (x
D
y
2
)/(H
D
+ q
cd
/D H
v2
) (18)
Points d and l
1
must lie on the same
straight line as the point y
2
, H
v2
. Since we
know the location of points d and l
1
, we
can draw a line connecting these points.
Stream V
2
is sat. vapor and the intersection
of dl
1
with the saturated vapor line at point
v
2
must represent the enthalpy and
composition of stream V
2
.
Repeat the entire process to calculate L
2
and V
3
. A tie line is
drawn from the point v
2
to the saturated liquid line. Point l
2
,
thus determined specifies stream L
2
.From point l
2
a line is
constructed to point d.

By reasoning analogous to that following Equation 18, stream
V
3
is represented by the intersection of line l
2
d with the
saturated vapor line at point v
3
.

The process is continued for each plate in the rectifying
section of the column and the number of plates determined by
the number of tie lines, which were constructed.
When a tie line crosses line bfd, the feed point is determined. A new
set of material and energy balances is then used to find the no. of plates in
the stripping section. The no. of plates in the stripping section of the
column (plates below the feed point) is determined in much the same
manner as in rectifying section.
An energy balance is written around the second plate in the stripping
section and the reboiler as
L
4
H
L4
= V
5
H
v5
+ B (H
B
q
B
/B) (19)
Component and total mass balances are
L
4
x
4
= V
5
y
1
+ Bx
B
(20)
L
4
= V
5
+ B (21)

If we substitute for L
4
from eq. 21 in eqns 18, 19 yields
(y
5
x
4
)/(H
V5
H
L4
) = (x
4
x
B
)/(H
L
(H
B
q
rb
/B)
(21)
Again, we see from equation 21 that points b and l
4

must lie on a straight line with point H
v5
, y
5
.

Since the location of these points known, a line is
extended through these points to the saturated vapor
line to determine the points v
5
and the enthalpy and
composition of a stream V
5
as shown in Figure.
b
By repeating this process until a tie line
intersects the saturated liquid line at or
below x
B
, we complete the Ponchon
analysis.

No. stages is determined by counting the
no. of tie lines that were constructed.

For example in the Figure we have a total
of equilibrium stages, 3 in the rectifying
section, one feed plate and 3 plates in the
stripping section.

The bottom stage in the stripping section
corresponds to the column reboiler.
b
The graphical analysis we have followed is equivalent to performing a
series of equilibrium calculations alternating with mass and enthalpy
balances.

Tie lines correspond to equilibrium calculations

Lines drawn from the saturated liquid locus to points d and b
represent the solution of coupled material and energy
balances
- Determine difference point (A) for enriching section
- Determine difference point for stripping section vt the
intersection point of x
A
z
f
line and the vertical line x
B
= x
A bar
.
- Stages may be stepped off from either end with use of the
appropriate delta point.
- Stages stepped off from the top of the column downward, by
alternate use of the equilibrium data and the delta point.
- Stepping off of stages is continued using (x
A
, h
A
) until z
f
is
reached.
- Then construction switches to the delta point for the stripping
section.
- The calculation is completed when the liquid composition equals
or exceeds the bottoms composition x
B
.
Design and operating variables
Separation is dependent upon variables:
h
F
, x
B
, x
D
, -q
c
, q
S
, L
o
/D and N

If any of these four are specified, the other three are either fixed or may be
calculated. Many combinations of specified variables is possible.

Design of a new equipment common case is that you know h
F
, x
B
, and x
D
.
L
o
/D is then chosen to give the most economical combination of equipment and
energy costs

Equipment costs o N ; Energy costs o reboiler and condenser duties

Reflux (L
o
/D) if RR increases more stages are required for a given separation
x
y
x, y
H
Tie line
Diff line
Equi proj
H vs y
H vs x
Equi curve
A
A bar
Design and operating variables (contd)
Reduction in L
o
/D for fixed values of h
o
and H
1
causes delta point to move
closer to H
1
.
As the delta point moves closer toward H
1
, a smaller change in composition
between stages is obtained so that more stages are required.

Id L
o
/D is reduced to a point where an extended line passes through delta
point, a pinch occurs.

Infinite stages are required @ pinch point and L
o
/D is called minimum RR.

How do we determine R
min
on H-xy plot??

Tie line that intersects farthest from the diagram determines (h
A
)
min
.
Calculate L
o
/D at these conditions to get min reflux ratio.
Design and operating variables (contd)
Increase in L
o
/D
number of stages decreases for a given separation
when all the reflux is returned (called total reflux)
at TR no products are withdrawn (B=0, D=0) and no feed
is supplied (F=0)
at TR minimum number of stages are required for a given
separation
L
o
/D =; V
S
/B = (@ total reflux conditions)

How to represent this scenario on H-xy plot??
Under this condition both delta points lie at infinity and the construction
lines to the delta point are vertical
Calculation of feed line slope
Two-phase feed where 80% of the feed is vaporised
under column conditions

A superheated vapor where 1 mole of liquid will
vaporise on the feed stage for each 9 moles of feed
input

A liquid feed subcooled by 35F. Average liquid heat
capacity is 30 Btu/lb-mole.F and =15000 Btu/lb-
mole.

A mixture of ethanol and water containing 40mol%
ethanol. Feed is at 40C. Pressure is 1 kg/cm
2
. h
F
=
20 kCal/kg, H =395 kCal/kg, h = 65 kCal/kg