Hydrocarbon Processing

Hydrocarbon Chemistry
Alkanes
CnH2n+2 Methane and Ethane (natural gas) Propane and Butane (fuels in cars/lighters etc) Pentane and Octane (fuels in combustion engines) Hexadecane (diesel and aviation fuels)

Alkenes
CnH2n Predominately used in plastics

 Cycloalkanes
CnH2n Used in fuels and other heavy oils

Alkynes
CnH2n-2

Aromatics
C6H6

Properties of Hydrocarbons
Dew Point
The point at which, when heat is removed from a vapour mixture, the first drop of liquid is formed.

Bubble Point
Temperature at which, when heat is applied to a liquid, the first vapour escapes as a bubble.

Vapour Pressure
The Pressure Exerted by the vapour formed above the liquid.

Reid Vapour Pressure

Absolute vapour pressure exerted by a liquid at 38.5oC (100oF) Take into account air and water vapour (different from true VP)

 Flash Point
Temperature at which, when a source of ignition is introduced to a vapour above a liquid it will ignite.

Auto-ignition Temperature
The point at which a fluid will ignite spontaneously in the air without the requirement for a source of ignition.

Reservoir Fluid
In addition to hydrocarbons:
H2S/CO2
Forms acids which can cause corrosion Removed by amine treating

N2
Reduces the calorific value of the gas Cryogenic Processing (Methane B.P of -161.6oC vs Nitrogen of -196.69oC)

Water
Can produce hydrates and promotes corrosion Removed by Gas Dehydration Process and Bulk Water Separation

 Sand
Brought up from the well with fluids. Erodes the pipework and can accumulate at the bottom of elbows, tees etc. Removed through gravity separation.

Mineral Salts
Chlorides, sulphates and carbonates of sodium, potassium, calcium and magnesium. Can cause fouling (particularly in heat exchangers).

Disposal

Gas Disposal
Produced gas can be disposed of through:
Flaring Re-injection Piped to market Liquefied

Gas must be treated to remove impurities.

Water Disposal
Produced gas can be disposed of through:
Discharging into sea Re-injection

If produced water is to be discharged into the sea it must 1st be treated to remove oil and solids.

Solids Disposal

Reservoir Characteristics & Well Fluids

Reservoir formed in porous, sedimentary rock. Surrounded by impervious rock (cap rock).

Phase Diagram
Pc

Tc

Pc - Critical Pressure
Pressure required to liquefy a gas at its

Tc - Critical Temperature
Temperature at which the vapour of the substance cannot be liquefied

API Gravity
A measure of how heavy or light a petroleum liquid is compared to water. Expressed as:
141.5/SG 131.5

If its API gravity is greater than 10, it is lighter than water; if less than 10, it is heavier and sinks. Units in degrees.

Reservoir Drives & Artificial Lift

Natural Lift

4 Types of natural drive

Depletion or solution drive Gas drive Water drive Gravity Drainage

Depletion or Solution Drive

Pressure in reservoir is greater than bubble point
All gas is dissolved in the oil

As pressure falls, bubbles form in the oil.

Causing the reservoir pressure to increase due to expansion of the gas bubbles Supporting production

Eventually the bubbles in the oil reach critical saturation levels.

This causes the gas to join together and flow as a single gas phase. Due to the lower viscosity of gas over oil, the gas flows to the well bore more rapidly than the oil

 Inefficient recovery
5 25% recovery

Little water is produced

Solution Drive

Gas Drive
Pressure in reservoir is less than bubble point
Gas forms as a cap above the oil.

As pressure falls, the gas cap above the oil expands.

The expansion of the gas cap increases the pressure of the reservoir. Pushing the GOC down, and forcing oil into the well bore.

Eventually the gas cap reaches the well bore.

This causes the GOR to increase rapidly until only gas is produced.

 Relatively efficient recovery

20 40% recovery

Small GOR Little water is produced

Gas Drive

Water Drive
As oil is extracted from the reservoir, the aquifer expands into the reservoir, displacing the oil.
Solution drive will most likely be taking place too.

The displacement of oil pushes the OWC up.

maintaining the reservoir pressure.

Eventually the aquifer reaches the well bore.

This causes the OWR to decrease rapidly until only water is produced.

Constant GOR
Unless there is a high pressure decrease In which case, GOR increases due to the oil forming gas bubbles (solution drive)

 Relatively efficient recovery

40 80% recovery

Water Drive

Gravity Drainage

Artificial Lift
Oil flow only occurs when
Reservoir pressure > static head
Static head = h * p * g

If static head is too great then oil wont flow.

Inject fluid into reservoir to maintain pressure Equipment in production tubing to assist flow.

Water Injection
Water injected into reservoir
Simulates water drive

Sources of water
Sea Water
Most convenient source for offshore production Water intake is placed at sufficient depths to reduce the concentration of algae Filtering, deoxygenating and biociding required.

Produced Water
Reduces Risk of causing damage to formation Risk of scaling or corrosion still exists. Make-up water must be provided

Aquifer Water River Water

 Filters
Clean water to remove impurities (e.g. shells & algae). Poor water quality, clogging of the reservoir and loss of oil production.

De-oxygenation
Promotes corrosion and growth of bacteria.
Bacteria can produce hydrogen sulphide.

De-oxygenation tower brings the water into contact with a dry gas stream. May also use a oxygen scavenging agent
Sodium bisulphate and ammonium bisulphate.

Water Injection Pumps

High pressure and high flowrates
3000 to 5000 psi and 2 barrels of water for every barrel of oil produced.

Gas Injection
Gas injected into reservoir
Simulates gas drive

Can be used where there is no economic gas export route or to fast track oil production.
Where gas export infrastructure has not been completed.

Gas maybe be recoverable later Higher pressure injection pumps required

6500 psi

Gas must 1st be treated to ensure it does not:

Cause corrosion in well equipment Form hydrates Contaminate the reservoir.

Gas Lift
Gas injected into annulus of the well.
Simulates depletion drive.

Reduces hydrostatic head at bottom of production tubing.

By lowering the density of the fluid.

May only be used in wells where natural drive still exists.

 Gas enters production tubing through non-return valve

Creates a foam when mixed with well fluids
Foam has lower density than well fluids.

Flow of gas into the tubing is determined by pressure difference.

Due to variable hydrostatic head in tubing, the gas can be injected at several points.

Packers around inner tubing seal lower ends of the annulus. Annulus safety valve prevents reservoir pressure entering gas lift supply should tubing rupture

Pumps
Lift Pump
Displacement device Driven from surface by piston or sucker rod

Submersible Pump
Centrifugal pump Located at bottom of well Flow rate is proportional to speed

Submersible Pump
Electric motor driven centrifugal pump Attached to bottom of production tubing

Main Problems are:

Solid ingress Lubrication Required a well work-over to remove them

Oil & Gas Separation

Purpose
Separate gas from oil to meet vapour pressure specifications Separate water from oil to meet water specification
To Prevent corrosion and formation of hydrates

Separate sand and sediment from oil to meet BS&W specification

Types
Test Separator
Used to separate and meter the well fluids

Production Separator
Used to separate the produced well fluid

Low-Temperature Separator
High pressure well fluid enters the vessel through a choke (or pressure reducing device).
This lowers the temperature to below well-fluid temperatures by the Joule-Thomson Effect This causes condensation of vapours that would have otherwise exited the separator in the vapour state

3-Phase Separator

Density Difference Impingement Baffle Change of Flow Direction At standard condition, droplets of liquid hydrocarbon have a density of Mist entering the separator is impinged against a surface Change ofto Flow Velocity 400 1600 times that of natural gas

When the direction of a gas stream containing liquid mist is changed The mist gathers on the surface and coalesces into larger droplets, which will When the velocity of a gas containing is changed gravitate in to thecauses liquid section of the vessel liquid abruptly, inertia thestream liquid to continue in themist original direction of This difference decreases with increasing temperature abruptly, the higher inertia of the liquid carries it forward away from the flow. Therefore oil gas separators operate at as low pressures as is gas. possible

Coalescing Pad

Oil/Gas Separation Schematic

http://www.offshorecenter.dk/artikel. asp?id=175&name=Offshore_oil_and_ gas_production_and_processing Gas Dehydration

Scrubber

Flash Gas Compression

HP Separator

IP Separator LP Separator

Produced Water

What is Produced Water?

Produced water is a term used to describe water that is produced when oil & gas are extracted from the ground. Historically disposed of in evaporation ponds. Can be re-injected into reservoir or disposed of into the sea
However it must first be treated to remove impurities

Water separation Methods

Water flash drum
Used on gas platforms with light hydrocarbons De-gases water in a flash drum The pressure is reduced
Enables volatile hydrocarbons to vaporise.
Then flared or vented, and the water dumped.

Coalescer
Small dispersed oil droplets coalesce which separate under gravity

Water separation methods

Skimmer tanks
Form of gravity separator. Low liquid velocity required.
Resulting in requiring large vessels.

Demulsifies sometimes added to aid separation by breaking up oil emulsions Oil layer pumped back to the process, and water dumped.

Water separation methods

Flotation treatment
Involve production of small bubbles in produced water which attach to oil and solids particles present, thus increasing buoyancy and gravitational separating efficiency.

Water separation methods

Plate separators Tilted Plate Separators Hydrocyclones

Gas Treatment

Associated Gas
Found with crude oil deposits.
Separated from crude oil at point of production. Drying is also carried out at point of production to prevent hydrate formation and reduce possibilities of corrosion. Further treatment required to remove Contaminants.
Either offshore or at on-shore terminals

Can be flared, re-injected or exported as sales gas. $30 billion flared annually

Natural Gas
Found with light volatile hydrocarbons (condensate) Found with crude oil deposits.
Separated from crude oil at point of production. Drying is also carried out at point of production to prevent hydrate formation and reduce possibilities of corrosion.

Pressure must be increased before entering pipelines

Gas processing
Normally gas processing will involve some or all of the following
Compression Drying mol sieve or glycol contracting Acid gas removal Hydrocarbon dew point adjustment

Common contaminants in gas streams

Water
Can cause hydrate formation Can freeze at low temperature processes Can dew out in pipelines May exceed specification2 for sales gas

Nitrogen
Lowers gas calorific value

Hydrogen Sulphide H2S

Toxicity Forms acid solutions with water leading to corrosion May exceed specification for domestic gas Forms acid solutions with water leading to corrosion Lowers gas calorific value

Carbon dioxide (CO2)

Hydrates in pipelines

Gas compression
Gas must be compressed to 40 100 bar (4000-10000 kPa) for;
Export Processing for NGL recovery LNG

If used as gas turbine fuel

Needs compression to 10 50 bar

Compressor selection
Two basic types of compressors
Dynamic Positive displacement

Positive displacement are sub-divided:

Reciprocating rotary