History of Unix

1970-1974, Simple is beautiful

early stage of AT&T Bell Lab, on PDP-11 machine Unix is not an acronym, but a weak pun on MULTICS

1976, first licensed release, Version 6 1978, first portable version, Version 7 1979, Berkeley 3BSD 1983, System V as industry standard 1984, Microsoft releases Xenix 1986, BSD 4.3, AT&T Version 9 1987, SVR4, Mach, 1993, Linux
1

Unix Philosophy

Easy to program by combining small building blocks

Not (naive) user friendly

A clean minimal design (nothing extra, nothing unnecessary) Open access:

Provide tools and mechanism to combining the tools Minimal restrictions to the ways of doing things A user can be very creative (and frustrated).

Major Unix OS features:

Kernel Shell File System
2

Unix Operating System Structure

OS mediates between the user and the computer

User

Application Programs

Kernel

Shell

Hardware
3

Kernel

Manages memory and allocates it to each process Schedules work done by the CPU Organizes transfer of data from one part of machine to another Accepts instructions from shell and carries them out Enforces access permission on the file system

Shell

Command interpreter Create customized environments Write shell scripts Define command aliases Manipulate command history File and command completion Edit the command line

File System

Logical method for organizing and storing large amounts of information. Easy to manage. File: basic storage unit. Types:
ordinary file (stores info) directory (holds other files and directories) special file (represents physical devices like printers, terminals, etc) pipe (temporary file for command linkage)

UNIX: Multi-user Multi-tasking

More than one user can run at the same time and more than one task can run at the same time Unix is multiuser multitasking, Window NT is, Windows is not. In Unix, each program is started as a process. A process is a program in execution. Usually only one copy of a program, but there may be many processes running the same program. To each interactive user (window):
only one process in foreground may have several processes in background
7

Processes
kernal mode user mode

kernel

Process 0: Kernel bootstrap. Start process 1. Process 1: create processes to allow login. fork exec /etc/getty condition terminal for login exec /bin/login check password exec shell command interpreter

/etc/init
inetd

lpd

httpd

fork exec /etc/getty exec /bin/login exec shell

Init process

Unix Process

last step in booting procedure create other processes to allow the users to login

Getty process
conditions for terminal connection wait for user-id

display login on the screen

Login process
check password with the uid execute .profile or .login (depends on default shell) display shell prompt

Shell process (command line interpreter) Shell prompt ($, %)

UNIX Process

Process environment
Process id, parent-process-id, process-group-id Opened files Working directory File creation mask User ID, Group ID Resource limits Environment variables Code

A child process inherits parents environment.

10

Processes
use ps to see the processes that you are running. $ ps PID TTY TIME CMD 221 pts/4 4:15 netscape 201 pts/4 0:05 bash 215 pts/4 1:15 emacs-19
use & to execute a task in background

Example: $ sort infile > outfile &

use ctrl-Z to suspend the foreground task, and then use bg. use fg to move a background task to foreground.
11

Shell: Command Interpreter

Bourne Shell: the default shell (sh)

original unix shell does not have interactive features of newer shells widely used for writing shell scripts standard on Unix System V

C Shell (csh): available on BSD Unix and most other systems

with syntax similar to the C language with many enhancement over the Bourne shell.

Korn Shell (ksh): AT&Ts answer to C Shell

combine features of Bourne and C shells very efficient

Other shells: tcsh, bash

12

Command cat cp mv rm lpr lp (Sys V) ls chmod pwd cd mkdir rmdir ps man df du grep

Function Display a file Copies a file Renames a file or moves it Delete files Sends a file to a printer

Day-to-Day Use

Meaning conCATenate CoPy MoVe ReMove Line Printer LiSt Change MODe Print WorkingDir Change Dir MaKe DIR ReMove DIR Process Status Manual Disk File Disk Utilization
13

Lists the contents of a directory Changes the mode of permissions Shows the current directory Change current directory Create a directory Delete a directory Shows the processes on the system Shows info. about commands Shows file system status Shows the space allocation of files Search for patterns in files

command [options] [arguments]

Standard Command Format

wc [-c | -m | -C] [-lw] [file ] stuff in brackets is optional boldface words are literals (must be typed as is) italicized (or <> enclosed) words are args (replace appropriately)

Options modify how the command works command [options] [--] [<file> ]
options ::= -option white-space options* option ::= noargoption* argoption | noargoption+ noargoption ::= letter argoption ::= letter whitespace string $cc -po zap zap.c
14

Some Examples

ls [-alRF] file-list
a for listing all files including the dot files l for long format (file type, permissions, #links, owner, group, etc) R for recursive, list subdirectories. F for listing directories with a trailing /

ps [<options>]
List the information about running processes Example: %ps -el # print the info about all processes (e) in the long format (l)

15

For shell command, system programs, and library functions. %man [n] <command>
e.g. %man wait %man man %man -k <keywords> %man 1 wait %man 1 man

On-line Documentation

Man(ual) page format

Name Synopsis Description (options, defaults, detail desc., examples) Files See Also Bugs

16

I/O Redirection

Redirection and Pipe

> redirects standard output (screen) to a file E.g. ls > dirlist < redirects standard input (keyboard) from a file E.g. sort < infile > outfile | pipe output of program 1 to input of program 2 E.g. who | wc Or getit < in | check_it | process_it | format_id > out >> appends output to a file E.g. ls -l >> oldfile Exercise: find out the definition of tee.
17

Sequential vs. Concurrent Process

Sequential:
%date %ps -ef %who

OR

%date; ps -ef; who

Concurrent:
%pgm1 & prgm2 > file1 & pgm3 %make > log & %sort +1 pdir; ((pr dir | lpr) & sort +1 local))

18

File Name Expansion

Each shell program recognizes a set of special characters called meta characters. The metacharacters are used to create patterns to match filenames and command names. Bourne and Korn shell meta/wildcard characters
* ? [a-dA-D] [!AB123] \ matches any string (including null) matches any one character matches any one character in the range matches a char not in this range escape

~<username> : (not bourne shell) the home dir of the user.

19

File Name Expansion

Assume we have the following files under the current directory: 120, 235, 2#5, a.out, c22, c*2, Doc.1, Doc.2, Doc.3, one.c,two.c, three.c
ls *.c ls [a-z]*[!0-9] ls ??? ls * ls c*2 a.* *.* cd ~foo

20

Filters

Most UNIX utilities are filters A filter is a program which

reads input (text) from standard input only writes output to standard output only writes error to standard error only may use temporary files for intermediate results

Filters can be combined to work together using pipes Pipe: takes stdout of one command and uses it as stdin of another command ls | wc
21

Command Alias

Assign your own name for a command Syntax is shell dependent

alias ll ls -l alias ll=ls -l C shell Korn, Bourne shell (displays value)

Displaying the value of an alias

alias ll

22

Unix File Systems

File: a collection of data

Just a sequence of bytes no record or block structure required

Directory
A file that contains information for files distinction between a directory and a file

system can alter the contents of a directory directories can contain both files and other directories info.

rooted tree file structure (inverted tree)

23

Unix File System Road Map

/ /dev /etc /var /bin /tmp /usr /mnt passwd hosts spool adm include etc bin lib 5bin ... printer messages mail(in) wtmp mail(out) uucp

/home sue john

Special files: /dev/* represents I/O devices.

24

File Systems and the I-nodes

Each disk drive contains one or more file systems

Each file system occupies a number of cylinder groups. Each file system has a superblock, an i-node table and files

The superblock is at a fixed location relative to the beginning of the file system. It contains a description of the file system. One can find the location of the I-node table thru superblock. Each entry of the I-node table is an I-node, which uniquely represents a file in the file system.
I-node table file1 file2 free file3 free

superblock

An I-node contains uid, gid, time of creation, modification, and access, permissions, location of the file on the disk.

25

od -b .

Inodes

0000000 4 ; . \0 \0 \0 \0 \0 \0 \0 \0 \0 \0 \0 \0 \0 0000020 277 ( . . \0 \0 \0 \0 \0 \0 \0 \0 \0 \0 \0 \0 0000040 390 = b l a h \0 \0 \0 \0 \0 \0 \0 \0 \0 \0 0000060

A filename is a link (links name in directory hierarchy to the inode, thus to the file contents)

26

Directory is an ordinary file

Directories

can be read as ordinary files (by any program that reads text) cant be created or written as ordinary files (only system can)

od - octal dump cat foo hi there welcome to unix od -c myfile (output in decimal by byte pairs) 0000000 h i t h e r e \n w e l c o m e 0000020 t o u n i x \n 0000031 1st 7-digits are position in file, ordinal number of next character (in octal)

27

Symbolic Links

Can have many links to the same file (inode) rm - does not remove inode, removes directory entry (link) Only when all links are gone is the file (inode) removed ln -command for creating symbolic links ln oldfile newfile (creates another link to the inode)

28

Permissions

Every file has a set of permissions associated with it

three types of permissions: read ( r), write (w), and execute (x) three sets of permission: user, group, world.

In Unix system, users are identified by numbers:uid, gid

ls -l -rwxr-xr-x 1 root

3743 Jan 4 1970 test

user group others #links owner size (time of last mod) (file name)

Problem: how do you write a program which allows different users to access a set of files? E.g. the program passwd
29

Permissions (cont.)

Solution: use the set-uid bit When a user execute a program with the set-uid bit set, the user assume the identity of the owner of the program.
For example
ls -l /bin/passwd -rwsr-xr-x 1 root set-uid 8454 Jan 4 1994 /bin/passwd

Set-uid bit may break the security wall. (users can run the /bin/passwd and act like root) Only special programs can be set-uid program, particularly if the owner is root.
30

Chmod

Change the access permissions of a file chmod <permissions> <filename>

permissions can be specified as 3 octal digits, <user,group,others>, the three bits of an octal means r,w,x

Example: chmod 755 test

permissions can be specified as +x, or u+x, or g+r, chmod +s test sets the set-uid bit for file test.

If a directory has x in its permision, the dir is searchable, ie., one can do ls on the directory.

31

Pathnames

Every file and directory in the file system can be identified by a full path name (route from root to file)
/home/sue/email/f1

Relative path name

. .. Current directory Parent directory

/ home sue

location relative to current directory fred

if cwd is /home/sue:
ls email ls ./email cd .. ls ../fred

docs
f1

email f2
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Mounting File Systems

/ /dev /etc /var /bin /tmp /usr /mnt /home

a file system

A file system must be mounted before it can be used Root file system is mounted at boot time. A file system can be mounted to a dir. of another mounted fs. Mounting is done in memory
33

Whats Next?

Shell scripts!

But first, some details

34

Some Details

cp [-ir] file1 file2 cp [-ir] file-list directory

i for interactive. prompt use whenever a file will be overwritten r for recursive. copy a directory tree

ls [-alRF] file-list
a for listing all files including the dot files l for long format R for recrusive. list the all subdirectories. F for listing directories with a trailing /

date [+format]
%date +%h %d, 19%y Oct 1, 1996
35

wc file-list

Some Details (cont.)

display the number of lines, words and charaters

more file-list
Browse through text files on page at a time.

head [-n ] file-list

Display the first n lines of the files (default=10)

tail [+n|-n| -f| ]

Display the last few lines in the files (default = 10) Example: %tail +5 foo # display the last parf of foo starting from line 5 %tail -5 foo # display the last five lines of foo %tail +30 foo | head -15 | more #display line 30-45 of foo %tail -f foo # wait and display the new lines appended to foo

36

cut -c list file cut -f list [-dChar] file

Some Details (cont.)

Cut out selected charaters or fields from each line of a file Examples: %cut -c 1-5,15-20 foo # extract chars 1-5 and 5-20 from each line of foo. %cut -f 1,3 -d moo # extract field 1 and 3 from each line of moo.

paste file1 file2

Concatenate corresponding lines of the given input files Example (reverse two fields of the file abc) %cut -f1 abc > abc1 %cut -f2 abc > abc2 %paste abc2 abc1 > xyz

37

Some Details (cont.)

grep, egrep, fgrep grep [-nv...] pattern [file-list]

Search the input text files for lines matcing the pattern %grep Unix doc.1 # Display the lines in doc.1 that contains Unix %grep -n Unix doc.* # Display the lines with line numbers %grep -v Unix doc.1 # Display the lines which do not contain Unix

sort [-tC] [-o outfile] [field-list] [file-list]

sort the files %sort +1 list1 # sort list 1 starting from field 2 to the end of the line %sort +2-3 list2 # sort list2 on the third field %sort -n -o list4 list3 sort list3 numerically and place the output in list4
38

diff

diff file1 file 2

Display different lines that are found when comparing two files It prints a message that users ed-lide notation (a - append, c change, d -delete) to describe how a group of lines has changed. It also describes what changes need to be made to the first file to make it the same as the second file. Example file1 file2 file3 apples apples oranges oranges oranges bananas bananas kumquats kiwis peaches
39

diff (cont.)
%diff file1 file2 3c3 <bananas ---------------->kumquats %diff file1 file3 1d0 <apples 3a3,4 >kiwis >peaches
40

 Takes two sorted text fiels and print common lines and lines which appear exclusively in one file on separate colmns. column1: lines only in file1, column 2: lines only in file2; col 3: comm Example file1 file2 %comm file1 file2 apple apple apple banana cantaloup banana grape grade cantaloup orange kiwi grape lemon kiwi %comm -12 file1 file2 apple grape 41

comm file1 file2

tr [-csd] pattern1 pattern2

Translate input character to output character based on the input and output patterns Example %tr [A-Z] [a-z] <in >out # xlate all letters to lower case. %tr -s \012\011\040 \012\012\012 < in > out # xlate blank, tab and newline chars to newline chars and squeeze (-s) consecutive newline char into one %tr -cs [a-z][A-Z] [\012*] < in > out # change all non-aplphbetic (-c) chars to newline chars and squeeze consecutive newlne char into one. %tr -d \040 < in > out # delete all blanks.
42

uniq [-cdu] file-list

Display a fiel, removing all successive repeated lines Example: file1: %uniq file1 apple apple banana banana banana apple apple banana %sort fruit | uniq -c apple 2 banana 3 %tr -cs [a-z][A-Z] [\012*] < fileA | sort | uniq # show a list of distinct words in fileA.

43

find <dir-name> <exp>

Recursively search the directory tree rooted at <pathname> and find all files whose names satisfy <exp> There are many details in the expression. Examples: %find . -name \*.doc -print # list all files names ending with .doc %find /etc/source -atime 2 -print # print the names of the files under /etc/source whose lst access time was 2 days ago. %find . -name [a-z]* -exec rm {} \; # remove the files under the curent directory whose names begin with a lower case letter. %find / \(-name a.out -o -name *.o \) -atime +7 -exec {} \; # remove the object and binary executable files under the root 44 direory which have not be accessed more than 7 days.

cpio -i[cdv] -o[cBv]

System V file archive and backup progam

Example %find proj -print | cpio -ocBv > /dev/rmt8 # cpio get file names from stdin. -o create archive which is redirected to the tape device. %find proj -print | cpio -ocBv > proj.cpi # get file name from stdin and -o createsarchive which is redirected to proj.cpio %cpio -icdv *.c </dev/rmt8 # -i read from archive file from the tape device. -d creates directories as needed.

45

 key := c (create) | t (table of content) |r (append the file) | u (update the file) options := v (verbose) | b (block) | f (file name follows) | m (use extraction time as the mod file) Create/extracting archive files for backup and transporting files %tar cvf proj.tar proj # create archive file proj.tar from file or dir proj %tar xvf proj.tar # extract files in proj.tar % tar tf proj.tar # list of the filenames in proj.tar without extracting data. %tar cf - proj | (cd /newproj/; tar xvpf -) # copy proj to the directory /newproj/. p to keep all the protection mode. cp -r copies a dir tree but all the time info is gone. Tar preserve the time info. %tar cbf 20 proj.tar /usr/local/proj # avoid using full path names. 46 When you extract the file, tar will insist to put fiels to /usr/local/proj.

tar [options] [file-list]

uuencode & uudecode

Generate an ASCII encoded version of the give files

Example: %uuencode file.bin newfile.bin > file.bin.uu # encode file.bin and put the result in file.bin.uu %uudecode file.bin.uu # decode the file file.bin.uu and generate a new file newfile.bin Sending a dir tree via email %tar cvf proj.tar proj %compress proj.tar # compress proj.tar to proj.tar.Z %uuencode proj.tar.Z proj.tar.Z | mail qli at the receiving end, extract the mail and save it in xx %uudecode xx %zcat proj.tar.Z | %tar xvf -

47

sed [-n] | [-e] sed_cmd file_lists

A stream editor. It copies the lines from the file_list or stdin to stdout, editing the lines in the process.
Examples: %sed -n /hello/p < input > output # copy the lines contains hello. -n suppress stdout so only the lines that matches are copied. %sed 5,7d file1 # delete lines 5 to 7 from file1. File1 is unchanged. %sed s/Unix/UNIX/ doc2 #replace the first occurrence of Unix in each line by UNIX. %sed s/Unix/UNIX/g doc2 # replace all Unix by UNIX
48

awk [-f progfile] [-Fc] [prog] [files]

Pattern matching and stream editor.

Example: Program awkexample: BEGIN { linetype=0} # initialization NR == 1 { print $1 $NF} # if it is the first line, print the last field /^$/ { print This is an empty line } /^Unix/ { printf(Line starts with Unix\n %s\n, $0); linetype=1; next;} /NonUnix$/ { printf(End with NonUnix\n); linetype=0; next;} linetype == 1 { print $0} END {printf(%d lines processed\n, NR);} # finishing it up

49

awk (cont.)
Test data file (awktest):
Line1-field1 this is the las-field This line should not show Unix is simple and difficult Hello world is very simple Next blank line should show I line some other NonUnix This line should not show Bye

50

awk (cont.)
%awk -F -f awkexample awktest
Line1-field1 las-field This is an empty line Line starts with Unix Unix is simple and difficult Hello world is very simple Next blank line should show This is an empty line End with NonUnix This is an empty line 11 lines processed

Command line program: most of the awk commands can be used in he command line. %awk {print $2 $1} # exchange field1 and field2
51

chown [-R] <new-owner> <file-list>

Other Commands

Only owner and root can chown. (Root only in some systems.Why?) Example: %chown -R john testdir # john becomes the owner of all files under testdir.

kill [-signal] pid

Sending the specified singal to the process. The process can be programmed to catch most of the signals. Examples: %kill -1 1 # poke the init process to reinitialize (reading /etc/ttytab) %kill -9 1234 # kill process 1234 Signals can be spefified by name, e.g., HUP is 1, KILL is 9. 52 %kill -l # lists signal names

Other Commands (cont.)

du [-as.] [dir list] [file list]

Reports the allocated dispace for each file and/or directory specified -a lists all files, -s lists the grand total of each dir given Examples: %du -s # print the total disk space used by the files in and under the current dir. %du -s * # print the disk space used by each file and dir in the current dir.

53

make

A tool for maintaining programming projects make [-isrntqpd] [-f file] [macro-definition] [targets]
It allows the users to specify dependencies among different source and binary files in his/her applications. -i ignore error code returned by a command -s silent mode -r suppress built-in rules -n no execute mode -t touch target file -q question before change -p printout macro definitions and target descriptions -d debug mode 54 -f alernative make file name

make (cont.)
Makefile: prog: x.o y.o z.o cc -o prog x.o y.o z.o -lm x.o: x.c def.h cc -c x.c y.o:y.c def.h cc -c y.c prog z.o:z.c cc -c z.c

x.c x.o y.o def.h y.c z.c

z.o

make does depth-first search on the dependency graph

55

Makefile format

a makefile containing explicit dependency lines in the following format:

target1 [target2 ]: [dependency ] [; commands] [#commnets] [<tab> commands] [#comments] each command line start with a tab character, and no other lines should start with a tab. commands are bourne shell commands a set of built-in rules are used by make, e.g.: .c.o: $(CC) $(CFLAGS) -c $< # if .o depends on .c and f.c is newer, compile f.c Each command is executed by a different subshell.
56

make Macro
Syntax: Name=String. E.g. LIB=/users3/foo/lib Predefined Macros for C
CC=cc AS=as CFLAGS= -O -g LOADLIBS=

Built-in Macro (evaluated each time make reads a dependency line)

$* - the basename (suffix removed) of the current target test.o : test.h cc -c $*.c # cc -c test.c $@ - the full target name $? - the list of dependencies that are newer than the target libops: ineract.o shed.o gen.o ar r $@ $? # put any .o files newers than libops into libops $$ - the $ sign.

57

make -- Suffix Rules

make uses some conventions to simplify the makefille. Example: prog: x.o y.o z.o cc -c . # make finds files which can generate the .o files. Eg. x.c. If x.c is newer than x.o, x.c is compiled. Suffix rules are predefined, generalized descriptions: .SUFFIXES: .o .c .s # define the suffix to be consdiered significant .c.o: $(CC) $(FLAGS) -c $< .s.o: $(AS) $(ASFLAGS) -o $@ $< $< evaluates to whatever the dependecies triggered the rule. $* is similar to $< except that the suffix is removed. Both are used only in 58 suffix rules

An Example of make
MYPROG=/usr/local/myprog INCLUDE=$(MYPROG)/include BIN=$(MYPROG)/bin LIB=$(MYPROG)/lib CFLAGS= -g -I$(INCLUDE) .c.o: $(CC) $(CFLAGS) -c $*.c HEADERS=interface.h dbms.h SOURCE =driver.c interface.c dbms.c OBJECT=$(SOURCE:.c=.o) app: ($OBJECT) $(CC) -o app $(OBJECT) -l$(LIB)

(continued)

59

make-example (cont.)
print: @echo print source files # @ suppress the comman line printing @for file in $(SOURCE) \ do \ pr -n $$file; \ # $$ to make a $-sign for the shell command done clean: @rm -f *.o Usage: make app make clean
60

Processes

Process: instance of a program

has unique pid.

Process environment
Process id, parent-process-id, process-group-id Opened files, env Working directory, File creation mask code User ID, Group ID, Resource limits, Environment variables Code
61

UNIX Process

New process created each time you execute a command.

Current process (parent) forks a new process (child)

Child created as a foreground (wrt parent) process:

parent forks new child parent deactivated, waits for child to die parent reactived upon death of child

Child created as a background process:

parent forks new child parent immediately resumes activity

62

Processes
use & to execute a task in background

Example: $ sort infile > outfile &

ps - list processes. jobs - list background processes. ctrl-C (cancel foreground job) ctrl-Z (suspend foreground job) bg - move (suspended) job into background. fg pid - move background job to foreground. kill pid - kill the process

-1 (kill process, and children) -9 (kill process, may leave children alive)

63

Shell Process

Upon login: shell process created Any command you type at prompt: new child of your shell process What is your current shell? %echo $SHELL How to switch to another shell? %bash just type shell name How to switch login shell? %chsh user newshell (but wont work here)
64

Shell Metacharacters
> >> < | * ? [ccc] ; & prog > file prog>>file prog<file p1|p2 direct stdout to file append stdout to file take stdin from file connect stdout of p1 to stdin to p2 match string of 0 or more characters match any single character match any single character from ccc ranges like 0-9 or a-e are legal command terminator background process
65

`` () $1, $2 $var \ # var=val p1 && p2 p1 || p2

Shell Metacharacters

\c

run commands the output of produces run commands in in a sub-shell arguments to shell file value of shell variable var take c literally (dont evaluate) take literally take literally, after $, ``, \ interpreted comment assign variable var run p1, if successful, run p2 run p1, if unsuccessful, run p2
66

Whats going on?

What processes, programs, pipes, and files are used? %cat doc1 > out1; wc -l <out1 %grep root /etc/passwd >OUT2 ; cat <IN >OUT & %cat doc1 | wc -l

67

Whats going on?

% date ; who | wc Wed Sep 24 16:00:00 PDT 1997 4 24 182 | higher precedence than ; % (date ; who ) |wc 5 30 211

68

Whats Next?

Shell scripts!

69

Standard command format Recognize meta-characters (handle multiple files) Standard I/O (stdin,stdout, stderr. If file arg is absent use std) Keep messages and prompts to a minimum. Provide verbose options Input/output data should be text whenever possible. Use dot files and environment variables for frequently used info. Use standard library and tools to save coding effort.

Guidelines for writing Unix Commands/Tools/Scripts

70

Shell Script

Bourne Shell/Korn Shell Topics:

pass arguments global and local variables macro functions

Invoking a shell script

$shell_script_file or $sh -options shell_script_file the script file must have execute-permission.

71

Environment Variables
.profile

PATH=.:$HOME/bin:/bin:/usr/bin:/usr/local TERM=vt100 export TERM PATH HOME -- home directory PATH -- where to look for commands TERM -- terminal type for programs such as the editor CDPATH -- shortcut directories for cd command PS1 PS2 -- prompt
72

A shell script example

The script file loginfo (must be executable): echo The current date and time: \c date echo The number of users: \c who | wc -l # count number of lines echo personal info: \c); who am i exit 0 $chmod +x loginfo $loginfo The current date and time: Thursday October 10 The number of users: 7 Personal info: lseiter ttya .

73

Another Example
$cat shellvariables #! /bin/sh # show predefined shell variables echo The number of arguments is $# date & echo The process id of date command is $! wait echo The process id of this shell is $$ grep root /etc/passwd echo The return code from grep is $? echo The current set of options is $- $shellvariables one 2 xyz $sh -a shellvariables one 2 xyz

74

Positional parameters
set to shell script arguments. e.g. $my_script a b xy 1 2 3 positional parameters have the values $0 -- my_script $1 -- a $2 -- b $3 -- xy $4 -- 1 2 3 shift command: $shift [n] # parambers $n+1 $n+2 become $1 $2 . # default value of n is 1
75

Using Shell Variables

Symbolic Variables parameter = value Examples: I=5; Y=$I # There should be no space around the = sign # More than one command can be in a line separated by ; x = hello there\n; y=Hello echo $x dir1=/usr/bob/doc ls -a $dir1 echo x = $x
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Quoting

string take string literally $echo * $HOME * $HOME string take string literally, except $,`,\,, \c take c literally

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Quoting & Compound Command

The Quotes from Hell This is a string\n The amount is $100.0 quotes all char except \ $ ` quotes all char except command substitution (grave accent): $echo Users currently on the system:\n `who` $echo The banner command,\n `banner the banner`

Compound commands:
a pipeline, a list, a group (), a command that begins with a certain reserved words: for, if, case, time, I/O redirection applies to the complete command except a pipeline, a list and the time command. 78

test Command or [ ]
if test $# -eq 0 then echo no positional param! fi if [ $# -eq 0 ] then echo no positional param! fi

options: -r | -w | -x | -f | -d file # the file is readable, writeable, executable, a file, or a directory. n1 -eq | -ne | -gt | -ge | -lt | -le n2 # n1 = | <> | > | >= | < | <= n2

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Test Command

Options
File testing -r file -w file -x file -f file -d file Logical Connectives ! -a -o
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Numerical comparison n1 -eq n2 n1 -ne n2 n1 -gt n2 n1 -ge n2 n1 -lt n2 n1 -le n

String Comparison str1 = str2 str1 != str2 str

Parameter substitution
Parameter substitution ${param} ${param:-word} value of param if defined, otherwise word, param remains undefined ${param:=word} value of param if defined, otherwise word, if param undefined, param defined to word ${param:?word} if defined, param, otherwise print word and exit shell ${param:+word} word if param defined, otherwise nothing
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Commands and Functions

Reserved word commands

[[ test_expression]] if, case, for, select, while, until

command grouping:
(command_list) {command_list}

Function definition
function id { compound_list }
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CX command
Suppose you want a command cx that will take a filename and set its execute permission. For example, $cx foo Need to be able to get the filename from the command line Shell variables: $1 (first argument), $2 (second), $* (all args) chmod +x $1

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Flow Control

General Format:
if command_list1 then command_list2 elif command_list3 then command_list4 . else command_listn fi check exit code of the command 0 -> normal termination -> True non-0 -> abnormal termination -> False if test -d /usr; then echo its a dir; fi $if test -d /dir >then > echo its a dir >fi >$
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Looping

What does this command do? $wc -l * 6 file1 10 file2 3 file3 19 total What if you would like things formatted nicely? There are 6 lines in file1 There are 10 lines in file2 There are 3 lines in file3
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Loops

General Format:
while command(s) do body done check return code of command, if 0, execute body and loop again

while test ! -s file1 do echo file1 does not exist or is still empty sleep 500 done
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Loops

General Format:
until command do body done until who | grep $1 do echo $1 has not logged in yet sleep 500 done
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Shell scripts

for var in listofwords do commands done

for f in $* do x=`wc -l $f` echo There are `echo $x |cut -f1 -d ` lines in $f done

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Examples

if test ! -f $1 then echo First arg is not a file if

if [$NAME = John Doe -a $BAL -gt 5000] then echo ok else echo not ok fi
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Examples

if test -f $1 then echo First arg is a file elif test -d $1 then echo First arg is a directory fi

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