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Methane + oxygen carbon dioxide + water CH4 (g) + 2O2 (g) CO2 (g) + 2H2O (g)
During this reaction, as with all others, bond are first broken and then new bonds are made.
In methane molecules, carbon atoms are covalently bonded to hydrogen atoms. In oxygen gas, the atoms are held together in diatomic molecules.
During the reaction, all these bonds must be broken. Chemical bonds are forces of attraction between atoms or ions.
To break these bonds requires energy; Energy must be taken in to pull the atoms apart.
Breaking chemical bonds takes energy from the surroundings. This is an endothermic process.
in
New bonds are then formed: between carbon and oxygen to make carbon dioxide, and between hydrogen and oxygen to form water. Forming these bonds gives out energy.
Making chemical bonds gives energy to the surroundings. This is an exothermic process.
out
When methane reacts with oxygen, the total energy given out is greater than the total energy taken in. So, overall, this reaction gives out energy it is an exothermic reaction. The energy is released as heat.
The overall change in energy for this exothermic reaction can be shown in an energy level diagram.
Exothermic Reaction
Reactants Products + Energy
Energy of reactants Energy of products
Energy
Reactants
-DH
Products
Reaction Progress
Energy / kJ
Progress of reaction
In this reaction, energy is given out because the bonds in the products (CO2 and H2O) are stronger than those in the reactants (CH4 and O2) This means that the products are more stable than the reactants.
Some bonds are stronger than others. They require more energy to break them, but they give out more energy when they are formed.
The combustion reactions of fossil fuels such as oil and gas are exothermic.
The major characteristics that make these fuels so useful are that: they are easy to ignite and burn They are capable of releasing large amounts of energy as heat.
It is one of the reaction that take place when fuel is burnt in car engines.
Nitrogen + monoxide
oxygen
nitrogen
Here the bonding in the products is weaker than in the reactants. Overall, energy is taken in by the reaction.
Heat of reaction
The energy change in going from reactants to products in a chemical reaction is known as the heat of reaction. It is given the symbol H ( the symbol means change in
Heat of reaction
The energy given out or taken in is measured in kilojoules (kJ); 1 kJ = 1000 J.
Exothermic reaction
The starting point for the calculation is the reacting mixture. If a reaction gives out heat to the surroundings, the mixture has lost energy. It is an exothermic reaction.
Exothermic reaction In EXothermic reaction, heat EXits the reaction mixture. An exothermic reaction has a negative value of H.
Exothermic Reaction
Reactants Products + Energy
Energy of reactants Energy of products
Energy
Reactants
-DH
Products
Reaction Progress
Endothermic reaction
If a reaction takes in heat from the surroundings, the mixture has gained energy. It is an endothermic reaction.
Exothermic reaction In ENdothermic reaction, heat ENters the reaction mixture. An endothermic reaction has a positive value of H.
Endothermic Reaction
Energy + Reactants Products
Energy
Activation Energy
Products
Reactants
+DH
Reaction progress
Heat of reaction: for exothermic reactions, heat energy is given out (exits) and H is negative for endothermic reactions, heat energy is taken in (enters) and H is positive
These ideas fit with the direction of the arrows shown in the energy diagrams.
Exothermic reaction
Energy / kJ
Progress of reaction
Energy / kJ
2NO2 (g)
Heat taken in
N2 (g) + O2 (g)
Progress of reaction
Breaking bonds requires energy. It is endothermic. Making new bonds gives out energy. It is exothermic.
Heat of combustion
Heat of neutralisation
The energy change of a reaction when an acid react with an alkali to form water.
Activation energy
the amount of energy that is required to start a chemical reaction. Once activation energy is reached the reaction continues until you run out of material to react.
Activation energy
More usually, energy is required to start the reaction. When fuels are burnt, for example, energy is needed to ignite them.
Activation energy
This energy may come from a spark, a match or sunlight. It is called the activation energy (given the symbol EA) It is required because initially some bonds must be broken before any reaction can take place.
Activation energy
Sufficient atoms or fragments of molecules must be freed for the new bonds to begin forming.
Once started, the energy released as new bonds are formed causes the reaction to continue.
Activation energy
For the reaction of sodium or potassium with water the activation energy is low, and there is enough energy available from the surroundings at room temperature for the reaction to begin spontaneously.
Activation energy
Reactions can be thought of as the result of collisions between atoms, molecules or ions. In many of these collisions, the colliding particles do not have enough energy to react, and just bounce apart, rather like dodgem cars.
Activation energy
A chemical reaction will only happen of the total energy of the colliding particles is greater than the required activation energy of the reaction.
A chemical reaction will only happen of the total energy of the colliding particles is greater than the required activation energy of the reaction.
slow
fast
very fast
Rates of reaction
Why are some reactions faster than others?
The minimum amount of energy needed for the particles to react is called the activation energy, and is different for each reaction. The rate of a reaction depends on two things:
the frequency of collisions between particles the energy with which particles collide.
If particles collide with less energy than the activation energy, they will not react. The particles will just bounce off each other.
increased temperature increased concentration of dissolved reactants, and increased pressure of gaseous reactants increased surface area of solid reactants use of a catalyst.
0%
50%
75%
100%
Reactantproduct mix
The amount of hydrochloric acid used up (cm3/min). The amount of magnesium chloride produced (g/min). The amount of hydrogen product (cm3/min).
conical flask
rubber bung
hydrochloric acid
magnesium
60 50 40 x
rate of reaction = y x
30
20 10 0
10
time (seconds)
20
30
40
50
The gradient of the graph is equal to the initial rate of reaction at that time
rate of reaction = 45 cm3 20 s rate of reaction = 2.25 cm3/s
At a higher temperature, particles have more energy. This means they move faster and are more likely to collide with other particles.
When the particles collide, they do so with more energy, and so the number of successful collisions increases.
This means batteries are less likely to deliver enough current to meet demand.
+ wate
r
Na2S2 O3 (aq)
2HC l (aq)
2NaC l (aq)
SO
(g)
S (s )
H2 O (l)
Sulfur is solid and so it turns the solution cloudy. How can this fact be used to measure the effect of temperature on rate of reaction?
The higher the concentration of a dissolved reactant, the faster the Effect of concentration on rate of reaction rate of a reaction. Why does increased concentration increase the rate of reaction?
At a higher concentration, there are more particles in the same amount of space. This means that the particles are more likely to collide and therefore more likely to react.
lower concentration
higher concentration
Effect of pressure on rate of Why does increasing the pressure of gaseous reactants increase reaction the rate of reaction?
As the pressure increases, the space in which the gas particles are moving becomes smaller. The gas particles become closer together, increasing the frequency of collisions. This means that the particles are more likely to react.
lower pressure
higher pressure
Effect of surface area on Any reaction involving a solid can only take place at the surface rate of reaction of the solid.
If the solid is split into several pieces, the surface area increases. What effect will this have on rate of reaction?
This means that there is an increased area for the reactant particles to collide with. The smaller the pieces, the larger the surface area. This means more collisions and a greater chance of reaction.
Reaction between a Marble chips are made of calcium carbonate. They react with carbonate and acid hydrochloric acid to produce carbon dioxide.
calcium hydrochlor carbonat + ic e acid
CaCO3 (aq)
2HCl (aq)
The effect of increasing surface area on the rate of reaction can be measured by comparing how quickly the mass of the reactants decreases using marble chips of different sizes.
Catalysts are substances that change the rate of a reaction without being used up in the reaction. Catalysts never produce more product they just produce the same amount more quickly. Ea without catalyst energy (kJ)
Different catalysts work in different ways, but most lower the reactions activation energy (Ea).
Ea with catalyst
reaction (time)
Many catalysts are transition metals or their compounds. For example: Nickel is a catalyst in the production of margarine (hydrogenation of vegetable oils). Iron is a catalyst in the production of ammonia from nitrogen and hydrogen (the Haber process). Platinum is a catalyst in the catalytic converters of car exhausts. It catalyzes the conversion of carbon monoxide and nitrogen oxide into the less polluting carbon dioxide and nitrogen.
Everyday catalysts
Catalysts in industry
Catalysts reduce the need for high temperatures, saving fuel and reducing pollution.
Catalysts are also essential for living cells. Biological catalysts are special types of protein called enzymes.
enzyme A biological catalyst. rate of reaction The change in the concentration over a
certain period of time.
Anagrams
Multiple-choice quiz
Surface area
If we make the pieces of the reactants smaller we increase the number of particles on the surface which can react. This makes the reaction faster.
The particles on the surface can react
When cut into smaller pieces the particles on the inside can react
Temperature
When we increase the temperature we give the particles energy This makes them move faster This means they collide with other particles more often So the reaction goes faster.
Concentration
If we make one reactant more concentrated (like making a
drink of orange squash more concentrated)
There are more particles in the same volume to react So the reaction goes faster.
Click here to complete exercise
There are less red particles in the same volume so there is less chance of a collision There are more red particles in the same volume so there is more chance of a collision so the reaction goes faster
Using a catalyst
A catalyst is a chemical which is added to a reaction. It makes the reaction go faster. The catalyst does not get used up in the reaction. It gives the reaction the energy to get started
Endothermic Reaction:
- system absorbs E
- more energy needed to break bonds than released by creating bonds - change in enthalpy is positive
Exothermic Reaction: - system releases E - more energy released by creating bonds than needed to break bonds - change in enthalpy is negative
100
Hot pack
Pressing the bottom , the diaphragm breaks. Calcium chloride dissolves in water and warms it. The beverage gets warm.
101
Exothermic process
Heat flows into the surroundings from the system in an exothermic process.
Surroundings
Energy
Hot pack
Temperature rises
102
Hot pack
We will repeat the process in a beaker with calcium chloride ( 25 g CaCl2) + water (25 ml) and a thermometer. We will record the initial temperature of the water and the temperature after the dissolution of the salt. Observation: 103 a temperature rise of.
Cold pack
Water and ammonium nitrate are kept in separate compartments. Pressing the wrapper, the ammonium nitrate dissolves in water and absorbs heat. The pack becomes cold.
104
Endothermic process
Heat flows into the system from the surroundings in an endothermic Surroundings process.
Cold pack
Energy
Temperature falls
105
Cold pack
We will repeat the process in a beaker with ammonium nitrate ( 25 g NH4NO3) + water (25 ml) and a thermometer. We will record the initial temperature of the water and the temperature after the dissolution of the salt. Observation: a temperature drop of.
106
Exothermic Reaction
Reactants Products + Energy
10 energy = 8 energy + 2 energy
Energy of reactants Energy of products
Energy
Reactants
-DH
Products
Reaction Progress
Endothermic Reaction
Energy + Reactants Products
Energy
Activation Energy
Products
Reactants
+DH Endothermic
Reaction progress
Energy
reactants
products
Reaction Progress
Basic Revision
For a chemical reaction to occur, bonds must be both formed and broken Fe + CuSO4 Cu + FeSO4
Basic Revision
Chemical reactions always involve energy changes. Making and breaking bonds involves energy changes
sodium hydroxide soln + hydrochloric acid sodium hydrogen carbonate soln + citric acid
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Thermodynamics - the study of energy and energy transfer Thermochemistry - the study of energy involved in chemical reactions
Surroundings - everything else in the universe - part of the universe that is likely to be affected by energy changes in the system
objects
nuclei
- electronic potential energy of atoms connected by chemical bonds
1. Physical changes - Small change in enthalpy (tens of kJ/mol) - Change in intermolecular bonds between molecules as they change phase o Hvap enthalpy of vaporization (liquid gas) o Hcond enthalpy of condensation (gas liquid) o Hmelt enthalpy of melting (solid liquid) o Hfre enthalpy of freezing (liquid solid)
2. Chemical changes - Moderate change in enthalpy (hundreds of kJ/mol) - Change in intramolecular bonds within molecules as reactants break apart to form products o Hcomb enthalpy of combustion o Hneut enthalpy of neutralization o Hf enthalpy of formation
3. Nuclear changes - Enormous change in enthalpy (billions of kJ/mol) - Change in nuclear binding energy holding together the nucleus of an atom o A significant amount of mass of the reactants is actually converted to energy o Einstein: E=mc2, where m=mass and c=speed of light (3.0x108m/s) so a tiny mass is equivalent to a significant amount of energy
Mass Defect o difference in mass between a nucleus and its nucleons (particles found in the nucleus) o caused by the energy associated with the strong force that holds a nucleus together
o the higher the nuclear binding energy, the more stable the nucleus
Nucleus + Nuclear binding energy Nucleons
Rates of Reaction
Chemical reactions occur when different atoms or molecules collide: For the reaction to happen the particles must have a certain amount of energy this is called the ACTIVATION ENERGY.
The rate at which the reaction happens depends on four things: 1) The temperature of the reactants, 2) Their concentration 3) Their surface area 4) Whether or not a catalyst is used
Slower reaction
Time
Enzymes
Enzymes are biological catalysts. They help the reactions that occur in our bodies by controlling the rate of reaction. Yeast is an example of an enzyme. It is used to help a process called fermentation: Sugar Alcohol + carbon dioxide
The alcohol from this process is used in making drinks and the carbon dioxide can be used to make bread rise.
400C
Temp
pH
pH
Uses of enzymes
1) Enzymes are used in washing powders to help digest food stains. Biological washing powders will only work on 400C or lower.
2) Enzymes are used in baby foods to pre-digest the proteins. 3) Enzymes are used to convert starch into sugar which can then be used in food. 4) Conversion of glucose into fructose glucose and fructose are isomers (they have the same chemical formula), but fructose is sweeter.