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Session 2
Historical Linguistics
the end of the 18th century up to the middle of the19th century, which is called the beginning of comparative research; the end of the 19th century the period of neogrammarian studies, when linguists started comparing living languages; the beginning of the 20th century up to the present the period of structural and functional approaches to language.
Types of CA
Fisiak (1981: 2-3) divides contrastive studies into theoretical and applied:
Theoretical contrastive studies give an exhaustive account of the differences and similarities between two or more languages, provide an adequate model for the comparison, and determine how and which elements are comparable
They are language independent, which means that they do not investigate how a particular category or item present in language A is presented in language B, but they look for the realization of an universal category X in both A and B (Fisiak 1981 p.2).
Types of CA
Applied contrastive studies belong to applied linguistics. Fisiak (1981: 2-3) explains that drawing on the findings of theoretical contrastive studies they provide a framework for the comparison of languages, selecting whatever information is necessary for a specific purpose The main focus of applied contrastive studies is the problem of how a universal category X, realized in language A as Y, is rendered in language B, and what may be the possible consequence on this for a field of application (Fisiak 1981 pp.2-3). They are also concerned with the identification of probable areas of difficulty in another language where, for example, a given category is not represented in the surface and interference is likely to occur (Fisiak, 1981 p.3).
Strong version of CA
The strong version of the contrastive analysis hypothesis is associated with Charles Fries and Robert Lado. It predicts that second language learners will have difficulty with aspects (structures, or vocabulary) which differ from their first language, and conversely no problems with aspects which are similar in their first language. Another linguist supporting the strong version of the CAH was Fries. In his opinion, the most effective [teaching] materials are those that are based upon a scientific description of the language to be learned, carefully compared with parallel description of the native language of the learner (Fries 1945 p.1).
Strong version of CA
A brief outline of the procedure used, as Ellis (1994 p.307) mentions it: The procedure involved four stages:
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. description (i.e. the two languages were formally described) selection (i.e. certain items or areas were selected for comparison) comparison (i.e. finding similar and different items) prediction (i.e. in which areas the errors will most probably occur) Verification (i.e. find out whether the predictions made about errors and difficulties actually materialize or not
Important studies in CA
Brown (1980 p.159) concludes that interference is more likely to occur when there is similarity between the items to be learned and already known items than in the case of learning items which are entirely new to the learner.
He also points to the fact that most of the errors committed by L2 learners are intralingual errors, i.e. errors which result from L2 itself and not from L1.
Whitman and Jackson carried out a study in which predictions made in four separate contrastive analyses by different linguists were used to design a test of English grammar which was given to 2,500 Japanese learners of English as L2. They came to the conclusion that contrastive analysis, as represented by the four analyses tested in this project, is inadequate, theoretically and practically, to predict the interference problems of a language learner (Whitman and Jackson 1972 p.28)
The other problem, they argue, is that only a small number of errors committed by L2 learners could be unambiguously attributed to transfer from L1.
Semantics: It is the study of meaning in language. It is concerned with describing how we represent the meaning of word in our mind how we use this representation in constructing sentence. It is based largely on the study logic in philosophy.
Markedness theory
Greenberg (1966) assigns the designations marked and unmarked to opposing structural entities that exhibit a consistently asymmetric relationship in term of distribution and/or syntagmatic structure and or paradigmatic complexity. The one of the two entities that is consistently more widely distributed and/or simpler is called unmarked; its complement is the marked members of the opposition.
Markedness theory
Those areas of the target language which differ from the native language and are more marked than the native language will be difficult. The relative degree of difficulty of the areas of the target language which are more marked than the native language will correspond to the relative degree of markedness. Those areas of the target language which are different from the native language, but are not more marked than the native language will not be difficult.
The door was closed. The door was closed by the janitor.