BASIC CHEMISTRY CHM 138

CHAPTER 8 INTRODUCTION TO ORGANIC CHEMISTRY

ORGANIC CHEMISTRY
Organic chemistry: -The branch of chemistry that deals with carbons compounds. Organic derived from living organisms Study of compounds extracted from living organisms and their natural products. Examples: sugar, starch, urea, waxes, carbohydrates, fats and etc

Human are composed of organic molecules proteins in skin, lipid in cell membranes, glycogen in livers and the DNA in the nuclei of cells.

Chemistry of carbon: - Two stable isotops (13C and 12C) - electron configuration: 1s2 2s2 2p2 - four valence electrons - can form more compounds than any other element - able to form single, double and triple carboncarbon bonds, and to link up with each other in chains and ring structures

HOMOLOGUE SERIES AND FUNCTIONAL GROUPS

Functional group: A group of atoms that is largely responsible for the chemical behavior of the parent molecule. Functional groups: - hydrocarbons - alcohols - aldehydes - ketones - carboxylic acids - alkyl halides

HYDROCARBONS
Made up of only hydrogen and carbon

ALKANES

General formula: CnH2n+2, where n = 1, 2, . Only single covalent bonds are present Known as saturated hydrocarbons because contain the maximum number of hydrogen atoms that can bond with the number of carbon atoms present. Can be assumed to be sp3-hydridized

Structures of the first four alkanes

The melting and boiling points of the straight-chain isomers of the first 10 alkanes

Homologous Series
1.

2. 3.

Definition: A series of compounds in which each member differs from the next by a specific number and kind of atoms. Alkanes: Differ only at number of (CH2) Series of compounds that has the same functional group.

INITIAL NAMES OF THE HOMOLOGOUS SERIES

Number of carbon atoms, n 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Name Meth Eth Prop But Pent Hex Hept Oct Non Dec

NAMING ALKANES
Alkyl groups are used to name organic compounds. The general formula of an alkyl group is CnH2n+1. The letter R is often used in formulas to represent any of the possible alkyl groups. R= CnH2n+1 (any alkyl group) R = CH3 methyl group R = CH3CH2 ethyl group

IUPAC RULES International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry RULE 1. Select the longest continuous chain of carbon atoms as the parent compound.

Consider all alkyl groups attached to it as branch chains or substituents that have replaced hydrogen atoms of the parent hydrocarbon. If two chains of equal length are found, use the chain that has the larger number of substituents attached to it. The alkanes name consists of the parent compounds name prefixed by the names of the alkyl groups attached to it.

This structure has 2 chains.

This chain has 6 carbon atoms.

CH3

CH2

CH CH3

CH2

CH2

CH3

This chain has 4 carbon atoms. 1 2 3

CH3

CH2

CH CH3
4

CH2

CH2

CH3

This is the longest continuous chain.

Select this chain as the parent compound.

1 CH3

2 CH2

3 CH

4 CH2

5 CH2

6 CH3

CH3

1 CH3

2 CH2

3 CH

4 CH2

5 CH2

6 CH3

CH3
This is a methyl group.

It is a branch chain and can be considered to have replaced a hydrogen on the parent compound.

1 CH3

2 CH2

3 CH

4 CH2

5 CH2

6 CH3

CH3
The name of the compound is 3 3-methylhexane.

IUPAC RULES
RULE 2. Number the carbon atoms in the parent carbon chain starting from the end closest to the first carbon atom that has an alkyl group substituted for a hydrogen atom.

If the first subsitutent from each end is on the samenumbered carbon, go to the next substituent to determine which end of the the chain to start numbering.

If the chain is numbered left to right, the isopropyl group is on carbon 5.

1 2

isopropyl group

If the chain is numbered right to left, the isopropyl group is on carbon 4. Use right to left numbering so that the isopropyl group is on the lowest numbered carbon.
4-isopropyloctane

8 7

isopropyl group

IUPAC RULES
RULE 3. Name each alkyl group and designate its position on the parent carbon chain by a number (e.g., 2-methyl means group attached to C-2).

2-isopropyl pentane

RULE 4. When the same alkyl-group branch chain appears more than once, indicate this repetition by a prefix (di-, tri-, tetra- and so forth) written in front of the alkyl group name (e.g. dimethyl indicates two methyl groups).
The numbers indicating the alkyl-group positions are separated by a command and followed by a hyphen and are placed in front of the name (e.g., 2,3-dimethyl).

The methyl group appears twice

2,3-dimethylpentane

RULE 5. When several different alkyl groups are attached to the parent compound, list them in alphabetical order (e.g. ethyl before methyl in 3-ethyl-4-methyloctane). Prefixes are not included in alphabetical ordering (ethyl comes before dimethyl).

methyl

ethyl

3-ethyl-4-methyloctane

Alkanes can have many different types of substituents. For example:

NO2 Br
1

CH3 CH

CH

CH3

CH3

3-bromo-2-nitropentane

CYCLIC HYDROCARBONS

A hydrocarbon that contains carbon atoms joined to form a ring. Cycloalkanes all carbons of the ring are saturated

cyclopropane

cyclobutane

cyclopentane

cyclohexane

butane

cyclopentane

cyclohexane

NOMENCLATURE OF CYCLOALKANES

Similar to that alkanes. For examples:

CH3
= methylcyclopentane

CH3
4 32 5 61

CH2CH3

1-ethyl-3-methylcyclohexane

ISOMERISATION
-

Structural isomers: Molecules that have the same molecular formula, but different structure

Three isomers of pentane (C5H12)

STRUCTURE ISOMERS FOR ALKANES

NAME Methane Ethane MOLECULAR FORMULA CH4 C2H6 TOTAL OF ISOMERS 1 1

Propane
Butane Pentane Hexane Heptane Octane Nonane

C3H8
C4H10 C5H12 C6H14 C7H16 C8H18 C9H20

1
2 3 5 9 18 35

Decane

C10H22

75

ALKENES

Also called olefins Contain at least one carbon-carbon double bond (C=C) General formula, CnH2n (n=2,3,) Classified as unsaturated hydrocarbons (compound with double or triple carbon-carbon bonds that enable them to add hydrogen atoms. sp2-hybridized For example: C2H4 - ethylene

CH2

CH2

ALKYNES

Alkynes contain at least carbon-carbon triple bond. General formula: CnH2n-2, where n = 2, 3,. Alkyne nomenclature: Used suffix yne Same as alkene nomenclature
1 2 3 4 1

HC

CH2CH3

H3C

CH3

1-butyne

2-butyne

Naming Alkenes and Alkynes

IUPAC RULES
RULE 1. Select the longest continuous carbon chain that contains a double or triple bond.

This chain contains 6 carbon atoms

RULE 2. Name this compound as you would an alkane, but change ane to ene for an alkene and to yne for an alkyne.

This chain contains 8 carbon atoms

Name This isthe theparent longest continuous octene. compound chain. Select it as the parent compound.

RULE 2. Name this compound as you would an alkane, but change ane to ene for an alkene and to yne for an alkyne.

This chain contains a triple bond. Name the parent compound octyne.

RULE 3. Number the carbon chain of the parent compound starting with the end nearer to the double or triple bond. Use the smaller of the two numbers on the double- or triple-bonded carbon to indicate the position of the double or triple bond. Place this number in front of the alkene or alkyne name.

IUPAC RULES
This end of the chain is closest to the double bond. Begin numbering here.

IUPAC RULES
The name of the parent compound is 1-octene. 4 3 2 1

5 6

7
8

IUPAC RULES
The name of the parent compound is 1-octyne. 4 3 2 1

5 6

7
8

RULE 4. Branched chains and other groups are treated as in naming alkanes. Name the substituent group, and designate its position on the parent chain with a number.

IUPAC RULES
The is attached to carbon 4. Thisethyl is an group ethyl group.
4 3 2 1

5 6

4-ethyl-1-octene

7
8

IUPAC RULES
The ethyl group is attached to carbon 4.
4 3 2 1

5 6

4-ethyl-1-octyne

7
8

 must specify whether the molecule is cis or trans (geometric isomer)

CH3 H3C H C C CHCH3 H H3C H H C C CHCH3 CH3 4-methyl-trans-2-pentene

4-methyl-cis-2-pentene

cis two particular atoms (or groups of atoms) are adjacent to each other trans the two atoms (or groups of atoms) are across from each other

CYCLOALKENES

Contains C=C in the ring

cyclopropene

cyclobutene

cyclopentene

cyclohexene

Nomenclature of cycloalkenes: Similar to that alkenes Carbons atoms in the double bond are designated C1 and C2
6 5 4 3 1 2

CH3

5 4 3 1 2

1-methylcyclohexene

1,5-dimethylcyclopentene

AROMATIC HYDROCARBONS

Contain one or more benzene rings

benzene ring

Benzene Kekul Structure 6 carbons in a ring 3 double bonds

The structure of benzene can be represented in two abbreviated ways.

The corner of each hexagon represents a carbon and a hydrogen atom.

Naming Aromatic Compounds

 A substituted benzene is derived by replacing one or more of benzenes hydrogen atoms with an atom or group of atoms. A monosubstituted benzene has the formula C6H5G where G is the group that replaces a hydrogen atom.

All hydrogens in benzene are equivalent.

It does not matter which hydrogen is replaced by G.

Monosubstituted Benzenes

 Some monosubstituted benzenes are named by adding the name of the substituent group as a prefix to the word benzene. The name is written as one word.
nitro group ethyl group

nitrobenzene

ethylbenzene

Certain monosubstituted benzenes have special names. These are parent names for further substituted compounds.

methyl group

hydroxy group

toluene

phenol

carboxyl group

benzoic acid

amino group

aniline

C6H5 is the phenyl group. It is used to name compounds that cannot be easily named as benzene derivatives.

CH3CH=CHCHCH3

diphenylmethane

4-phenyl-2-pentene

Disubstituted Benzenes

Three isomers are possible when two substituents replace hydrogen in a benzene molecule.

The prefixes ortho-, meta- and para- (o-, mand p-) are used to name these disubstituted benzenes.

ortho disubstituted benzene substituents on adjacent carbons

ortho-dichlorobenzene (1,2-dichlorobenzene) mp 17.2oC, bp 180.4oC

meta disubstituted benzene substituents on adjacent carbons

meta-dichlorobenzene (1,3-dichlorobenzene) mp 24.82oC, bp 172oC

para disubstituted benzene substituents are on opposite sides of the benzene ring

para-dichlorobenzene (1,4-dichlorobenzene) mp 53.1, bp 174.4oC

When one substituent corresponds to a monosubstituted benzene with a special name, the monosubstituted compound becomes the parent name for the disubstituted compound.

phenol

m-nitrophenol

When one substituent corresponds to a monosubstituted benzene with a special name, the monosubstituted compound becomes the parent name for the disubstituted compound.

toluene

m-nitrotoluene

Tri- and Polysubstituted Benzenes

 When a benzene ring has three or more substituents, the carbon atoms in the ring are numbered.

Numbering starts at one of the substituent groups. The numbering direction can be clockwise or counterclockwise. Numbering must be in the direction that gives the substituent groups the lowest numbers.

clockwise numbering

6-chloro

1-chloro
6 5

4-chloro

4 3

1,4,6-trichlorobenzene

counterclockwise numbering chlorine substituents have lower numbers

2-chloro

1-chloro
2

4-chloro

4 5

1,2,4-trichlorobenzene

 When a compound is named as a derivative of the special parent compound, the substituent of the parent compound is considered to be C-1 of the ring.

1 1 6 5 4 2

2
3 4

2,4,6trinitrotoluene (TNT)

toluene

ALCOHOLS

Alcohols: Organic compounds containing hydroxyl (-OH) functional groups.

OH

Phenols: Compounds with hydroxyl group bonded directly to an aromatic (benzene) ring.

OH

CLASSIFICATION

According to the type of carbinol carbon atom (C bonded to the OH group).

OH

Classes: i) Primary alcohol - -OH group attached to a primary carbon atom ii) Secondary alcohol - -OH group attached to a secondary carbon atom iii) Tertiary alcohol - -OH group attached to a tertiary carbon atom

TYPE
i)

STRUCTURE
H R C H

EXAMPLES
CH3

Primary (1)

OH

CH3CH2-OH ethanol

CH3CHCH2 OH 2-methyl-1-propanol

ii)

Secondary (2)

R' R C OH H

OH H3C CH CH2CH3 2-butanol

OH cyclohexanol

iii)

Tertiary (3)

R' R C OH R''

CH3 H3C C OH CH3 2-methyl-2-propanol

Polyhydroxy Alcohols
Alcohols that contain more than one OH group attached to different carbons are called polyhydroxy alcohols.

Monohydroxy: one OH group per molecule.

Dihydroxy: two OH groups per molecule. Trihydroxy: three OH groups per molecule.

Naming Alcohols

IUPAC RULES
1.

2.

3.

4.

Select the longest continuous chain of carbon atoms containing the hydroxyl group. Number the carbon atoms in this chain so that the one bonded to the OH group has the lowest possible number. Form the parent alcohol name by replacing the final e of the corresponding alkane name by ol. When isomers are possible, locate the position of the OH by placing the number (hyphenated) of the carbon atom to which the OH is bonded immediately before the parent alcohol name. Name each alkyl branch chain (or other group) and designate its position by number.

This is the longest continuous chain that contains an hydroxy group. Select this chain as the parent compound.

4 3 2 1

This end of the chain is closest to the OH. Begin numbering here.

4 3 2 1

3-methyl-2-butanol

This is the longest continuous chain that contains an hydroxy group. Select this chain as the parent compound.

3
2 1

This end of the chain is closest to the OH. Begin numbering here.

3
2 1

3-methyl-2-pentanol

EXAMPLE
CH3 OH
4 3

CH3

CH

CH2

Br

CH3

1) Longest carbon chain = 4 carbons = root name: butanol 2) Position of OH group = second carbon atom = 2-butanol 3) Name of substituents = 1-bromo = 3-methyl = 3-methyl COMPLETE IUPAC NAME = 1-bromo-3,3-dimethyl-2-butanol

EXAMPLES OF POLYHYDROXY ALCOHOL

CH2 CH2 OH OH
1,2-ethanediol

CH2 CH CH2 OH OH OH
1,2,3-propanetriol

Ethers
An ether has the formula ROR. R and R can be the same or different groups. R and R can be saturated, unsaturated or aromatic. Saturated ethers have little chemical reactivity but are often used as solvents.

 Alcohols and ethers are isomeric. They have the same molecular formula but different structural formulas.

An alcohol and its isomeric ether have different chemical and physical properties.

C2H6O
CH3CH2OH
ethanol B.P. 78.3oC hydrogen bonds soluble in water

C2H6O
CH3OCH3
dimethyl ether B.P. 27.3oC does not hydrogen bond insoluble in water

Naming Ethers

Common Names
Common names of ethers are formed from the names of the groups attached to the carbon atom in alphabetical order followed by the word ether.

CH3CH2CH2 O CH2CH3
propyl ether ethyl ethyl propyl ether

IUPAC RULES

RO is an alkoxy group. Ethers are named as alkoxy derivatives of the longest carbon-carbon chain in the molecule

IUPAC RULES
Select the longest carbon-carbon chain and label it with the name of the corresponding alkane.

1.

2.

Change the yl ending of the other hydrocarbon group to oxy to obtain the alkoxy group name. Combine the names from steps 1 and 2, giving the alkoxy name first, to form the ether name.

3.

This is the longest carbon-carbon chain. Label it the Change with name the name of the of other the corresponding hydrocarbon alkane. group to oxy.

CH3CH2CH2 O CH2CH3
propane ethoxy ethyl

IUPAC name: ethoxypropane Trivial name: ethyl propyl ether

ALDEHYDES AND KETONES

Functional group: carbonyl group

C O

Aldehyde: one hydrogen atom is bonded to the carbon in the carbonyl group. Ketone: the carbon atom in the carbonyl group is bonded to two hydrocarbon groups.
O R C R' O R H aldehyde C

ketone

R, R' = substituents

Naming Aldehydes

The IUPAC names of aldehydes are obtained by dropping the e and adding -al to the name of the parent hydrocarbon.

butane

butanal al

 The parent hydrocarbon is the longest chain that carries the CHO group.
This chain has 4 carbon atoms.

1 4

 The parent hydrocarbon is the longest chain that carries the CHO group.
This chain has 5 carbon atoms.

2 1

 The CHO group is always at the beginning of the carbon chain. The carbonyl carbon is numbered as carbon 1.

1
3-methylpentanal

 The common names of aldehydes are derived from the common names of the carboxylic acids.

The ic acid or oic acid ending of the acid name is dropped and is replaced with the suffix aldehyde.

butyric acid

butyraldehyde

Naming Ketones

The IUPAC name of a ketone is derived from the name of the alkane corresponding to the longest carbon chain that contains the ketone-carbonyl group. The parent name is formed by changing the e ending of the alkane to -one.

propane

propanone one

If the carbon chain is longer than 4 carbons, its numbered so that the carbonyl carbon has the smallest number possible, and this number is prefixed to the name of the ketone.

This end of the chain is closest to the C=O. Begin numbering here.

3-hexanone

 The common names of ketones are derived by naming the alkyl or aryl groups attached to the carbonyl carbon followed by the word ketone.

ethyl

propyl

ethyl propyl ketone

ALKYL HALIDES

General formula: CnH2n+1X where n = 1,2, and X (halogen) Functional group: halogen, -X (X = F, Cl, Br, I)

Naming alkyl halides: - same as nomenclature of alkanes

5 4 3

CH3
2 1

CH3 CH3 CH2 C Br

6 5 4 3 2

CH3 CH2 CH CH3

1

CH3 I iodomethane

CH3 CH2 CH CH CH3 CI 3-chloro-2-methylpentana

4-bromo-2,4-dimethylhexane

AMINES
Amines are organic compounds and functional groups that contain a basic nitrogen atom with a lone pair Functional group:

Classification of amines:
Primary amine Secondary amine Tertiary amine

Primary (1o) amine: one hydrogen of ammonia is replaced by an alkyl or aryl group Secondary (2o) amine: two hydrogens of ammonia is replaced by an alkyl or aryl group Tertiary (3o) amine: three hydrogens of ammonia is replaced by an alkyl or aryl group Quaternary (4o) amine: an ion in which nitrogen is bonded to four alkyl or aryl groups and bears a positive charge

CH3 H3C N CH3 CH3

NAMING AMINES

Common names: - formed from the names of the alkyl groups bonded to nitrogen, followed by the suffix amine. - the prefixes di-, tri-, and tetra- are used to decribe two, three or four identical substituents.

CH3 CH2 NH2

ethylamine

CH3 CH2

CH3 N CH3

(CH3CH2CH2CH2)4N+ -CI tetrabutylammonium chloride

ethyldimethylamine

CH3 N CH3
cyclohexyldimethylamine

NAMING AMINES

IUPAC names: - similar to that alcohols. - the longest continuous chain of carbon atoms determine the root name. - the e in alkane name is changed to amine, and a number shows the position of the amino group along the chain. - other substituents on the carbon chain are given numbers, and the prefix N- is used for each substituent on nitrogen.
NH2 CH CH3
2 1

CH3
4 3 2

NH2
1

CH3 CH2
4 3

CH3 CH CH2 CH2

3-methyl-1-butanamine

2-butanamine

NHCH3 CH3 CH2 CH CH3

4 3 2 1

CH3 CH3 CH3 CH2 CH CH CH CH3 N CH3 CH3

2,4, N, N-tetramethyl-3-hexanamine

N-methyl-2-butanamine

CARBOXYLIC ACIDS

Functional group: carboxyl group, -COOH

O C OH

The carboxyl group can also be written as

or

 Open-chain carboxylic acids form a homologous series. The carbonyl group ( ) is always at the beginning of a carbon chain.
The carbonyl carbon atom is always designated as C-1.

The IUPAC name of a carboxylic acid is derived from the name of the alkane corresponding to the longest carbon chain that contains the carboxyl group.

The parent name is formed by changing the e ending of the alkane to oic acid.

methane

methanone oic acid

Examples of carboxylic acid

O CH3 CH C OH Br 2-bromopropanoic acid

3 2 1

O CH C OH
2 1

CH3 CH

CH3 CH3 2,3-dimethylbutanoic acid

Organic acids are usually known by common names. These names usually refer to a natural source of the acid.

ethanoic acetic acid acid common IUPAC name

methanoic formic acid acid common IUPAC name

CARBOXYLIC ACID DERIVATIVES

Group Class of replacing the compound OH group of RCOOH -X (halogen) Acyl halide -OR -NH2
O O C R'

General formula

Example

O R C X O
R C OR' O
R C NH2
O O

O H3C C CI
ethanoyl chloride

Ester Amide

O H3C C OC2H5
ethyl ethanoate

H3C C NH2
ethanamide

Acid anhydride

R C O C R'

H3C C O C CH3
ethanoic anhydride

Esters

An ester is an organic compound derived from a carboxylic acid and an alcohol.

carbonyl group OR bonded to a carbonyl carbon.

The ester functional group is COOR.

Esterification is the reaction of an acid and an alcohol to form an ester.

acetic acid (ethanoic acid)

ethyl alcohol (ethanol)

ethyl acetate (ethyl ethanoate)

IUPAC NAME

According to the IUPAC system the alcohol part of the ester (R) is named first.

ethyl

IUPAC NAME
This is followed by the name of the acid where the ic ending of the acid has been changed to ate.

ethanoate

IUPAC NAME

According to the IUPAC system the alcohol part of the ester (R) is named first. This is followed by the name of the acid where the ic ending of the acid has been changed to ate.

ethyl ethanoate

COMMON NAME
The alcohol part is named first (derived from the common names of alcohol).

The common names of esters are derived by adding ate to the name of the acid.

acetic acid acetate

ethyl

COMMON NAME
The alcohol part is named first (derived from the common names of alcohol).

The common names of esters are derived by adding ate to the name of the acid.

ethyl acetate

Amide

Amide: a composite of a carboxylic acid and ammonia or an amine. Classification of amide: i) primary amide: RCONH2 (two H atoms bonded to N atom) ii) secondary amide: RCONHR (one H atoms bonded to N atom) iii) tertiary amide: RCONRR (no H atoms bonded to N atom)

NAMING AMIDE

IUPAC name: i) primary amide - first name the corresponding acid. Drop the ic acid or oic acid, and add the suffix amide.
O CH3 C OH NH3
ammonia

O CH3 C NH2
ethanamide
acetamide

IUPAC name ethanoic acid

Common name acetic acid

NAMING AMIDE

IUPAC name: i) secondary and tertiary amide - treat the alkyl groups on nitrogen as substituents, and specify their position by the prefix N-.

O CH3 C N CH2CH3 H
IUPAC Name Common name N-ethylethanamide N-ethylacetamide

O CH3

CH3 C N CH2CH3

N-ethyl-N-methylethanamide N-ethyl-N-methylacetamide

Acyl halide / acid halides

O R C X

Naming acid halides: - replacing the ic acid suffix of the acid name with yl and the halide name.
O CH3 C F
IUPAC Name Common name ethanoyl fluoride acetyl flouride

O CH3CH2 C CI
propanoyl chloride propionyl chloride

Acid anhydride

Naming acid anhydride: - the word acid is changed to anhydride in both the common and the IUPAC name
O O

CH3 C O C CH3
IUPAC Name Common name ethanoic anhydride acetic anhydride

CH3 C O C H
ethanoic methanoic anhydride acetic formic anhydride

FUNCTIONAL GROUPS OF ORGANIC COMPOUNDS

POLYMERS
A polymer is a high molar mass molecular compound made up of many repeating chemical units.
Naturally occurring polymers Proteins Nucleic acids Cellulose Rubber Synthetic polymers

Nylon
Dacron Lucite

 The simple repeating unit of a polymer is the monomer.

Homopolymer is a polymer made up of only one type of monomer ( CF2 CF2 )n ( CH2 CH2 )n ( CH2 CH )n Cl PVC

Teflon

Polyethylene

 Copolymer is a polymer made up of two or more monomers

( CH

CH2

CH2

CH

CH

CH2 )n

Styrene-butadiene rubber

Formation of Polyethylene

polyethylene ethylene monomer

nCH2=CH2

CH2 CH2[CH2 CH2]n CH2 CH2 CH2 CH3

n = the number of monomer units.

n ranges from 2,500 to 25,000

SOME MONOMERS AND THEIR COMMON SYNTHETIC POLYMERS

USES AND IMPORTANCE OF ORGANIC COMPOUNDS

NYLON
Nylons are condensation copolymers formed by reacting equal parts of a diamine and a dicarboxylic acids, so that peptide bonds form at both ends of each monomer in a process analogous to polypeptides biopolymers.

General reactions:

Dicarboxylic acids

Diamines

Nylon

Basic concepts of nylon production

The first approach: - combining molecules with an acid (COOH) group on each end are reacted with two chemicals that contain amine (NH2) groups on each end. - Form nylon 6,6, made of hexamethylene diamine with six carbon atoms and acidipic acid, as well as six carbon atoms. The second approach: - a compound has an acid at one end and an amine at the other and is polymerized to form a chain with repeating units of (-NH-[CH2]n-CO-)x. - Form nylon 6, made from a single six-carbon substance called caprolactam.

Uses and important of nylon

Apparel: Blouses, dresses, foundation garments, hosiery, lingerie, raincoats, ski apparel, windbreakers, swimwear, and cycle wear Home Furnishings: Bedspreads, carpets, curtains, upholstery

Industrial and Other Uses: Tire cord, hoses, conveyer and seat belts, parachutes, racket strings, ropes and nets, sleeping bags, tarpaulins, tents, thread, monofilament fishing line, dental floss

AZO-DYES
Azo compounds: - compounds bearing the functional group R-N=N-R', in which R and R' can be either aryl or alkyl. - N=N group is called an azo group - HNNH is called diimide
Aryl azo compounds have vivid colors, especially reds, oranges, and yellows

Yellow azo dye

Uses and important of azo dye

Methyl orange - used as acid-base indicators due to the different colors of their acid and salt forms Artists paints clays, yellow to red range Dye in food and textiles

E102: Tartrazine

E107 : Yellow 2G
EXAMPLES OF AZO DYES USED IN FOOD

E110 : Sunset Yellow

E122 : Azorubine

E123 : Amaranth

E124 : Ponceau 4R

E129 : Allura Red

E151 : Brilliant Black

FUEL

Any material that is burned or altered to obtain energy and to heat or to move an object Its energy can be stored to be released only when needed, and that the release is controlled in such a way that the energy can be harnessed to produce work Examples: Methane, petrol and oil. Application of energy released from fuels: - cooking - powering weapons to combustion - generation of electricity Fuel oil: generate heat or used in an engine for the generation of power