Chapter 1

Organization of the Human Body

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Definitions

Anatomy: science that studies structure Physiology: science that studies body functions Anatomy (structure) determines physiology (functions)

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Levels of Organization

Chemical: atoms molecules Cellular: cells containing organelles

Basic unit of life 4 basic types: epithelial, connective, muscular, nervous

Tissue: groups of cells and surrounding material

Organ: group of tissues performing a common

function

System: group of organs with a common function Organism: contains all systems of an individual

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Levels of Organization

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Life Processes

Metabolism- the sum of all the chemical processes that occur in the body. Responsiveness - the bodys ability to detect and respond to changes. Movement - includes motion of the whole body, individual organs, single cells, and even tiny structures inside cells.

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Life Processes

Growth - is an increase in body size that results from an increase in the size of existing cells, an increase in the number of cells, or both. Differentiation - the development of a cell from an unspecialized to a specialized state. Reproduction - refers either to the formation of new cells for tissue growth, repair, or replacement, or to the production of a new individual.
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Autopsy

Postmortem examination Examination and dissection of a body to determine the cause of death when life processes have not been maintained adequately.

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Homeostasis

is the condition of equilibrium in the bodys internal environment due to the constant interaction of the bodys many regulatory processes. Maintaining a stable internal environment Dynamic process because of many changes Examples of variable factors

Body temperature, Blood pressure Water and nutrient levels

Maintained by feedback systems

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Feedback sys. or Feedback loop

cycle of events in which the status of a body condition is monitored, evaluated, changed, remonitored, reevaluated, and so on. monitored variable, such as body temperature, blood pressure, or blood glucose level, is termed a controlled condition. three basic components of Feedback sys : receptor, control center, and an effector.
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Components of Homeostatic Mechanisms

Stimulus disrupts a controlled variable Receptor recognizes the change and sends message = input (typically by nerve pathways) to: Control Center that evaluates input and sends output to: Effector that attempts to change the altered variable

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Operation of Feedback System

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Negative Feedback Systems

reverses a change in a controlled condition Most homeostatic control mechanisms are negative feedback systems Negative means opposite (not bad) These systems reverse a change in the controlled variable, bringing it back to normal

Example: high blood pressure (BP) is detected and then lowered to normal BP

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Negative Feedback Systems

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Positive Feedback Systems

Few homeostatic control mechanisms are of this type These systems strengthen a change and must be shut down by an outside force. Examples:

Contractions of uterus cause even more contractions at child birth Hormonal control of ovulation Systems that control blood clotting

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Clinical Terms

Disorder: abnormality of structure/function Disease: specific illness characterized by signs and symptoms

Symptoms: subjective changes not observable from outside a person. Examples: pain, headache, nausea, anxiety Signs: observable or measurable changes. Examples: can be either anatomical, such as swelling or a rash, or physiological,such as fever, high blood pressure, or paralysis.

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Aging and Homeostasis

Normal process that:

Includes a progressive loss in the ability to maintain homeostasis (homeostatic imbalance) Affects all body systems Can be slowed down or minimized by healthy living

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Anatomical Terms

Precise use of language to define position, direction, and location in the body.

Anatomical position

Stands erect facing the observer, with head level and eyes facing forward, and palms facing forward

Common and anatomical terms Directional terms Planes and sections Body cavities

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Anatomical Position

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Directional Terms
words that describe the position of one body part relative to another Superior - toward the head Inferior - away from the head Anterior (ventral) - nearer to or at the front of the body Posterior (dorsal) - nearer to or at the back of the body Medial nearer to the midline Lateral- farther from the midline Intermediate between two structures
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Directional Terms

Ipsilateral -On the same side of the body as another structure Contralateral - On the opposite side of the body from another structure Proximal - Nearer to the attachment of a limb to the trunk; nearer to the origination of a structure Distal - Farther from the attachment of a limb to the trunk; farther from the origination of a structure Superficial (external)-Toward or on the surface of the body Deep (internal)- Away from the surface of the body.
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Directional Terms

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Planes Through the Human Body

Planes - imaginary flat surfaces that pass through the body parts

Sagittal plane - a vertical plane that divides the body or an organ into right and left sides. midsagittal plane or a median plane - a plane passes through the midline of the body or an organ and divides it into equal right and left sides parasagittal plane - divides the body or an organ into unequal right and left sides

frontal or coronal - divides the body or an organ

into anterior (front) and posterior (back) portions.
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Planes Through the Human Body

Transverse plane - divides the body or an

organ into superior and inferior portions.
aka cross-sectional or horizontal plane

Oblique plane - passes through the body or an

organ at an oblique angle.

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Planes Through the Human Body

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Planes and Sections: Brain

Section - is a cut of the body or one of its organs made along one of the planes

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Planes and Sections: Brain

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Planes and Sections: Brain

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Anatomical Terms

Body cavities - are spaces within the body that help protect, separate, and support internal organs.

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Anatomical Terms

Body cavities

Cranial (brain) and vertebral (spinal cord) Thoracic (chest cavity): pleural, pericardial, and mediastinal (region between lungs) Abdominopelvic (inferior to diaphragm):

Abdominal
Larger; contains most abdominopelvic organs Subdivided into 9 regions or 4 quadrants

Pelvic
More inferior and smaller Contains urinary bladder, lowest portions of digestive tract, and internal reproductive organs

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Anatomical Terms

Body cavities

Serous membranes are located in thoracic and abdominopelvic cavities

Functions: protect organs, reduce friction Layers

Visceral layer covers organs Parietal layer lines cavity

Names:
Pleural (covers lungs, lines thorax) Pericardial (covers heart, lines central part of thorax) Peritoneal (covers organs, lines abdominopelvic cavity)

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Body Cavities

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Body Cavities

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Anterior view of thoracic cavity

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Anterior View of Abdominopelvic cavity

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Abdominopelvic Cavity: 9 Regions

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Abdominopelvic Cavity: 9 Regions

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Abdominopelvic Cavity: 4 Quadrants

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Other body cavities

Oral (mouth) cavity, which contains the tongue and teeth Nasal cavity in the nose Orbital cavities (orbits), which contain the eyeballs Middle ear cavities which contain small bones Synovial cavities which are found in freely movable joints and contain synovial fluid

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References

Tortora, G.J., & Derrickson, B. (2012). Principles of ANATOMY & PHYSIOLOGY. (13th ed.). John Wiley & Sons, Inc., Hoboken (NJ) Tortora, G.J., & Derrickson, B. (2009). Principles of ANATOMY & PHYSIOLOGY. (12th ed.). John Wiley & Sons, Inc., Hoboken (NJ)

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End of Chapter 1

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