Superconductivity and Nano materials: Temperature dependence of

resistivity, Effect of magnetic field (Meissner effect), Penetration depth,

Type I and Type II Superconductors, Temperature dependence of
critical field, BCS theory(qualitative), High temperature
superconductors, Applications of superconductors (qualitative).
Introduction to Nano materials, Basic principles of Nano- science and
technology, Creation and use of Bucky balls, Structure, properties and
uses of carbon nanotubes, Some applications of Nano-materials
UNIT-2:
What are SUPERCONDUCTORS
Before the discovery of the superconductors
it was thought that the electrical resistance
of a conductor becomes zero only at absolute
zero
But it was found that in some materials
electrical resistance becomes zero when
cooled to very low temperatures
These materials are nothing but the SUPER
CONDUTORS.

WHO FOUND IT?
Superconductivity was discovered in 1911 by Heike
Kammerlingh Onnes , who studied the resistance of
solid mercury at cryogenic temperatures using the
recently discovered liquid helium as refrigerant.
At the temperature of 4.2 K , he observed that the
resistance abruptly disappears.
For this discovery he got the NOBEL PRIZE in
PHYSICS in 1913.
In 1913 lead was found to super conduct at 7K.
In 1941 niobium nitride was found to super conduct
at 16K
SUPERCONDUCTING MATERIALS
Superconductivity - The phenomenon of losing resistivity
when sufficiently cooled to a very low temperature (below
a certain critical temperature).
H. Kammerlingh Onnes 1911 Pure Mercury (4.15K)
SUPERCONDUCTORS
Superconductivity is
a phenomenon in
certain materials at
extremely low
temperatures
characterized by
exactly zero
electrical resistance.
Definition
Superconductivity is the flow of
electric current without resistance
in certain metals, alloys, and
ceramics at temperatures near
absolute zero, and in some cases
at temperatures hundreds of
degrees above absolute zero .

Superconductors.org
Only in nanotubes
Note: The best conductors & magnetic materials tend not to be superconductors (so far)
Transition Temperature or Critical Temperature
(T
C
)
Temperature at which a normal conductor loses
its resistivity and becomes a superconductor.
Definite for a material
Superconducting transition is reversible
Very good electrical conductors are not
superconductors eg. Cu, Ag, Au
Types
1. Low T
C
superconductors
2. High T
C
superconductors
Superconductivity generally occurs at very
low temperatures.
In this state the materials have exactly zero
electrical resistivity.
As the material drops below its
superconducting critical temperature, magnetic
fields within the material are (totally or
partially) expelled.
Superconductivity occurs in a wide variety of
materials,including simple elements like tin and
aluminium, various metallic alloys and some
heavily-doped semiconductors
Occurrence of Superconductivity
Superconducting Elements T
C
(K)
Sn (Tin) 3.72
Hg (Mercury) 4.15
Pb (Lead) 7.19
Superconducting Compounds
NbTi (Niobium Titanium) 10
Nb
3
Sn (Niobium Tin) 18.1

TEMPERATURE
DEPENDENCE OF RESISTIVITY
As temp decreases thermal vibrations of atoms decrease and
conducting electrons are less scattered.
The decrease in resistance is linear till one third of the Debye
temprature and a few degrees above absolute zero they lose all
traces of electric resistance and pass into superconducting state.
Zero Electrical Resistance for super conductors but some residue
(due to impurities) in ordinary metals.
Defining Property
reversible
10
-5
cm









Temperature Dependence of Resistance
Electrical Resistivity
=
o
+ (T)
Impurities
Phonons
High Temperature Low Temperature
Impure Metals
=
o
+ (T)

Pure Metals
= (T)

Impure Metals
=
o


Pure Metals
= 0
Superconductor

Normal phase
Superconductivity phase
MEISSNER EFFECT
When a superconductor is placed in a
weak external magnetic field, the field
penetrates the superconductor only at a
small distance, called the London
penetration depth, decaying exponentially
to zero within the bulk of the material.
This is called the Meissner effect, and is a
defining characteristic of superconductivity.
For most superconductors, the London
penetration depth is on the order of 100
nm.
MEISSNER EFFECT
When the superconducting material is placed in a magnetic field
under the condition when TT
C
and H H
C
, the flux lines are
excluded from inside the material.
Material exhibits perfect diamagnetism or flux exclusion.
Deciding property
= M/H = -1
Reversible (flux lines penetrate when T from T
C
)
Conditions for a material to be a superconductor
i. Resistivity = 0
ii. Magnetic Induction B = 0 when in an uniform magnetic field
Simultaneous existence of conditions of zero resistivity and
perfect diamagnetism.

The Meissner Effect
A diamagnetic property
exhibited by
superconductors.

End result is the exclusion of
magnetic field from the
interior of a superconductor.
Below its critical
temperature (T
c
) a
superconductor does not
allow any magnetic field to
enter it.


What is diamagnetism?
meissner effect Maxwell's equations could explain
the superconductivity phenomenon.
superconductors 0 0
0 tan .
This means that the magnetic flux de
Before the
J
J E E J
for E
B B
As XE B cons t
t t
o
o

o o
o o
= = =
= =
V = = =
nsity in the interior of the
superconductor cannot change on cooling at or below the
transition tempr
Re
at
si
ure.
stiv
But this
ity and
contradicts the
perfect Diamagne
mei
tism
ssners effec
tw
t.
o ar p e inde
of the
endent
super proper conduc s ties tor
Meissner effect shows that magnetic flux is ejected
outward of the specimen
4 ( )
superconductors 0
1
0 4 ( )
4
behave as d
0 de t
iamagne
specim n
.
e
ts
m
B insi he
B H I M
for B
I
H I M
H
SC
t
t _
t

= +
=
= + =

=
=
Circulating currents on the surface of
the superconductor induce microscopic
magnetic dipoles that oppose the
applied field.

The induced field repels the applied
field, and the magnet associated with it.

If a magnet is on top of a
superconductor as it is cooled below its
T
c
, it would exclude the magnetic field of
the magnet.
The Result
Applications of Meissner Effect
Standard test proof for a superconductor
Repulsion of external magnets - levitation
Magnet
Superconductor
Yamanashi MLX01 MagLev train
Temprature dependance of critical
field/Effect of external magnetic field
on superconductors
Superconductivity will dissapear if
temp of specimen is raised above
Tc or if a sufficiently strong
magnetic field is applied
Critical magnetic field (H
C
)
Minimum magnetic field required
to destroy the superconducting
property at any temperature


H
0
Critical field at 0K
T - Temperature below T
C

T
C
- Transition Temperature



Superconducting
Normal
T (K) T
C

H
0



Element H
C
at 0K
(mT)
Nb 198
Pb 80.3
Sn 30.9
2
0
1
C
C
T
H H
T
(
| |
( =
|
(
\ .

H
C

A superconducting Sn has a critical temprature
of 3.7K in zero magnetic field and a critical
field of 0.0306T at 0K. find the critical field
at 2K.
0
2
2
0
2
T =3.7K , H =
H =H
=
0.0306T (at 0K)
2
(1 ) 0.0306(1 )
3.7
0.02166Tesla
c
c
c
T
T
=
5
5
The critical field of niobium is 1x10 A/m
at 8K and 2x10 A/m at 0K. calculate the
critical temprature of the material
2 2
0
2 2
0
1/ 2
1/ 2
0
0
H
H =H =
H
H
H
H
H
=
(1 ) 1
(1 ) or
(1 )
11.31K
c
c
c c
c
c
c
c
T T
T T
T T
T
T

= =

The Science.
The understanding of superconductivity was advanced in
1957 by three American physicists-John Bardeen, Leon
Cooper, and John Schrieffer, through their Theories of
Superconductivity, know as the BCS Theory.
Pictures of Bardeen, Cooper, and Schrieffer, respectively.






The BCS theory explains superconductivity at temperatures
close to absolute zero.
Cooper realized that atomic lattice vibrations were directly
responsible for unifying the entire current.
They forced the electrons to pair up into teams that could
pass all of the obstacles which caused resistance in the
conductor.

In many superconductors, the attractive interaction
between electrons (necessary for pairing) is brought
about indirectly by the interaction between the electrons
and the vibrating crystal lattice (the phonons).
Roughly speaking the picture is the
following:
An electron moving through a conductor will attract nearby
positive charges in the lattice.
This deformation of the lattice causes another electron, with
opposite spin, to move into the region of higher positive
charge density.
The two electrons then become correlated. There are a lot of
such electron pairs in a superconductor, so that they overlap
very strongly, forming a highly collective condensate.
The electron pairing is favorable because it has the effect
of putting the material into a lower energy state.
When electrons are linked together in pairs, they move
through the superconductor in an orderly fashion.
Best conductors best free-electrons no e

lattice interaction
not superconducting
The Science.
The BCS theory successfully shows that electrons can be
attracted to one another through interactions with the
crystalline lattice. This occurs despite the fact that electrons
have the same charge.
When the atoms of the lattice oscillate as positive and
negative regions, the electron pair is alternatively pulled
together and pushed apart without a collision.

The Science.
One can imagine a metal as a lattice of positive ions, which can
move as if attached by stiff springs. Single electrons moving
through the lattice constitute an electric current.
Normally, the electrons repel each other and are scattered by the
lattice, creating resistance.
A second electron passing by is attracted toward this positive
region and in a superconductor it follows the first electron and
they travel bond together through the lattice.
Electrons in the lattice form Cooper pairs which allow for current
to flow without resistance.
The electron-phonon interaction leads to a new ground state of
electron pairs (Cooper pairs) which shows all the desired
properties.


Classification of superconductors
The SC may be classified into two categories, depending
On their magnetization behavior ie the way in which the
transition from the normal state to SC state proceeds
in external magnetic field.


1. TYPE I (soft SC)
2. TYPE II (hard SC)
TYPE I (soft SC)
The SC in which the the magnetic field is totally excluded
From the interior of the SC ie it exhibits complete meissner
effect.
Above a certain magnetic field Hc the SC loses
Superconductivity and magnetic field penetrates fully.
The transition from
normal
to SC state
in the presence of
magnetic
field occurs sharply at Hc
TYPE II (hard SC)
Have two critical fields a lower Hc
1
and Hc
2
an upper.
State of specimen between Hc
1
and Hc
2
is termed as the
intermediate state magnetically but electrically it is a SC.
Alloys and transition metals with high value of resistivity
in normal state
They exhibit incomplete meissner effect.

Superconductor Classifications
Type I
tend to be pure elements or simple
alloys
= 0 at T < T
crit
Internal B = 0 (Meissner Effect)
At B
ext
> B
crit
, no superconductivity
Well explained by BCS theory

Type II
tend to be ceramic compounds
Can carry higher current densities ~ 10
10

A/m
2
Mechanically harder compounds
Higher H
c
critical fields
Above H
ext
> H
c
, some superconductivity
High Temperature Superconductors
CHARACTERISTICS
High T
C

1-2-3 Compounds: they are neither metals nor inter-
metallic compounds , they are oxides. their unit cell
contains 1 atom of rare earth(yttrium), 2 barium atoms ,3
cu atoms and 7 oxygen atoms.
Perovskite crystal structure:form as layers of Cu and O2
atoms sandwitched between layers containing other
lements in the compounds.
Direction dependent(anisotropic)
Reactive, brittle
Applications of high Tc SCs
Large distance power transmission ( = 0)
Switching device (easy destruction of
superconductivity)
Sensitive electrical equipment (small V
variation large constant current)
Memory / Storage element (persistent
current)
Highly efficient small sized electrical generator
and transformer

PENETRATION DEPTH
It is defined as the effective depth to which a magnetic
field penetrates the superconductor.
Depends strongly on temperature and becomes much
Larger as T approaches Tc.
1
4
2
0
0
( ) [1 ( ) ]
and are penetration depths at
TK and 0K respectively.
T
c
T
T
T

=
The penetration depth of Hg at 3.5K is about
750A and n
(superconducting electron density) as T 0
. Estimate the values of
o
s

1
4
2
0
1
4 0
2
0
1
0
2
0 0
2
0
28 3
( ) [1 ( ) ]
[1 ( ) ] 528.7 also
[ ] electron,
e charge, of super electrons
1.0x10
T
c
T
c
T
s
s
s
T
T
T
A
T
m
m mass of
n e
n number
n m

=
= =
=

=
Applications of Superconductors
magnetic shielding devices
medical imaging systems, e.g. MRIs
superconducting quantum interference
devices (SQUIDS) used to detect extremely small changes in magnetic
fields, electric currents, and voltages.
infrared sensors
analog signal processing devices
microwave devices
SQUIDS
Source: Superconductors.org
Flux-Pinning:
The phenomenon where a magnet's lines of
force (called flux) become trapped or
"pinned" inside a superconducting material.
This pinning binds the superconductor to the
magnet at a fixed distance.

Picture of Flux-Pinning:
Source: Superconductors.org
Emerging Applications
power transmission
superconducting magnets in generators
energy storage devices
particle accelerators
levitated vehicle transportation
rotating machinery
magnetic separators
What Types of Superconducting Power
Systems Equipment Can Help Us?
Underground transmission cables
Fault current limiters
Transformers
Motors
SMES, Generators, etc.

Cable transmits 3 to 5 times more energy
than copper wire

Source: Southwire
Transformer- 2 times overload capacity without
insulation damage and environmentally friendly due to lack
of oil used in operation.

Source: Waukesha Electric Systems
HTS Motor requires half the space of copper based
motors


Source: Rockwell
SMES
(Superconducting Magnetic Energy
Storage)
Source: American Superconductor
THE END