TARGET DEDECTION

-03-

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The ability of the radar system to detect and
display a given target depends on a large number
of factors some of which are constant and others
which may vary in quite a complex manner.

The radar range equation is an expression which

attempts to formalize the relationship between the
maximum range at which a target can be detected
and the parameters on which that range depends.

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Transmitter characteristics
As might be expected, the ability to detect distant
targets can be improved by using a more powerful
transmitter .

The maximum detection range varies as the fourth

root of transmitter power.

The power of transmitters designed for fitting to

large vessels varies with manufacturer, but 10kW
and 50kW are representative of low and high values.

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Antenna characteristics
The maximum detection range is a function of
antenna gain and aperture area. Detection range
varies as the square root of antenna gain. Thus aerial
gain has a greater influence than transmitter power
on long range performance.

It may seem strange that wavelength does not appear

in the equation. It is in fact implicit in the aerial gain
and the target radar crosssection, both of which are
functions of wavelength

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Receiver characteristics
Smin, the minimum detectable signal, is a function of
receiver sensitivity.

The receiver sensitivity, and hence the maximum range

at Which targets can be dedected, is thus a function of
the pulse lenght selected by the observer

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Target characteristics
Energy in the pulse which is intercepted by the target
is then available for return towards the antenna and
hence to the receiver which is now in a receptive
state. The amount of energy which is returned
toward the antenna, as opposed to that energy which
is absorbed and scattered by the target, is dependent
upon the following five prime characteristics of the
target.

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1- Aspect
Aspect is the angle which the radar rays make with the
plane of the mirror and, the response will be good when
the aspect is 90° and poor at virtually all other angles.

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2-Surface texture
The extent to which reflection is specular is dependent
upon the surface texture of the target, i.e. whether the
surface is 'rough' or 'smooth'.

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3-Material
In general, materials which are good conductors of
electricity also return good radar responses. This occurs as
a result of absorption and re-radiation of the waves at the
same wavelength as those received

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Some bodies absorb radiation but, when they reradiate,
the wavelength is different from that at which it was
received; still other bodies absorb radiation and re-radiate
very little of the energy (this results in the temperature of
the body rising, i.e. the received radiation is coverted to
heat). Some materials are simply transparent to radar
energy. GRP behaves to large extent in this way, steel will
return good responses, while wooden boats generally
produce poor responses.

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4. Shape

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5- Size
The response is related to the area of the target irradiated
by the beam (at any instant). This is not necessarily the
same as the intrinsic size of the target.

Since the radar beam is angularly wider in the vertical

plane than in the horizontal, tall targets will in general
produce stronger responses (all other factors being equal).

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Consider two targets presenting the same area to the
radar; if the linear width of the horizontal beam at the
range of the targets is equal to the linear width of target A
then, in the case of B, only the small irradiated portion of
the target will contribute to echo strength, while, in the
case of A, virtually the total area will be irradiated.

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Responses from specific targets

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1 -Ice
Large icebergs, such as those which are formed on the east
coast of Greenland and drift down toward the North
Atlantic shipping routes, have been found to give greatly
varying radar responses.

Detection ranges as great as 11 nautical miles have been

experienced while, on the other hand, quite large icebergs
have approached to within 2 n mile without being detected.

Even the same iceberg may give greatly differing responses

when viewed from different directions.
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Strength of echoes returned from icebergs are only about
1/60 th of the strength of echoes which would be returned
from a steel ship of equivalent size .

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The best use of radar under ice danger is:

(a) a dedicated radar watch by one observer;

(b) regular searching with the anti-clutter control on the

short ranges remembering to check at frequent intervals
on the longer ranges for larger targets;

(c) use of the long pulse in weak clutter;

(d) use of the longer wavelength of the S-band radar.

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2- Radar-conspicuous targets
Targets which are designated radar-conspicuous
should be those which are known to provide good
radar responses and are readily identifiable.

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3 -Ships
The structure of ships is such that there are many natural
'corner reflectors' and hence, when a target vessel is
rolling and pitching in a seaway, its echo strength does not
vary quite as much as might be expected.

Long vessels may appear as two or three individual echoes

(each of which when tracked by ARPA might appear to be
going in a slightly different direction). They may also be
confused for a tug-and-tow or vice versa. Supertankers,
because of their low freeboard, may not be dedected
inordinately great ranges.
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Target Enhancement-Passive
It is essential that some targets which would normally
provide poor radar responses, e.g. buoys, glass fibre and
wooden boats etc, are detected at an adequate range by
radar.

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1- Corner reflectors

A corner reflector was seen as a simple device which would

return virtually all of the energy which entered it, i.e , the
energy would be returned in the direction from which it
had come almost irrespective of the angle at which it had
entered the corner

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Target enhancement –Active
1- The racon
The ship’s radar pulse triggers the racon transmitter on
the navigation mark, which then responds by transmitting
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a pulse (virtually instantaneously)

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2-The Ramark
This is a radar beacon in which the frequency is swept
continously at such high speed that the transmission at
each frequency is in effect continuous (not triggered)

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Sources of radar beacon information
The Admiralty List of Radio Signals Volume 2 contains
information ralating to racons working in both the S-band
and the X-band as well as ramarks.

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ALRS VOLUME 2

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Racons for survival craft
To assist in the detection and identification of survival
craft and other small craft in distress, the IMO have
specified a Search and Rescue Transponder (SART) which
is a coded racon and which will appear on the radar screen
as a series of twenty dots. Since the racon flash will always
appear as a radial signal beyond the target, it will
immediately indicate the course to steer to the target.

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It is intended that the beacons should respond to radar
equipment working in the standard marine X-band. A
feature of the beacon is an audible or visible signal that lets
the survivors know there is a craft in the area with
operational radar. The increasing strength of the signal
would indicate that the vessel using the radar is
approaching and this is seen to provide a valuable
psychological stimulus for survival.
It is mandatory for certain classes of craft with the
implementation of the Global Maritime Distress and
Safety Service (GMDSS).

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The radar horizon
At marine radar transmission frequencies (nominally
10000 and 3000 MHz) , the paths followed by the signals
nay be considered as 'line of sight', This means that even
though the radar is delivering a powerful pulse and the
target is capable, if irradiated, of returning a detectable
response, the target will not be detected if it is below the
radar horizon. This is analogous to the visual observation
of objects in the vicinity of the horizon,
The effect of the atmosphere on the horizon is a further
factor which must be taken into account when assessing
the likelihood of detecting a particular target and
especially when considering the expected appearance of
coastlines, 36
1 -The effect of standard atmospheric conditions

Under standard atmospheric conditions, the radar beam

tends to bend slightly downward, the distance to the radar
horizon being given by the formula

dnmile=1.22 √ h ft or dnmile=2.21√ hm
where h is the height of the antenna in feet or metres

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The possibility of dedecting targets beyond radar horizon
will, in addition to all the ıther factors that will be
discussed in this chapter ,depend upon the height of the
target.Thus the teorical dedection range based purely on
the antenna and target heights is given by the formula.

Rd = d+D
Rd = 1.22 √ h ft +1.22 √ H ft or
Rd = 2.21 √ h m+2.21√ H m

Where h and H are heights of antenna and target

respectively in feet or metresIn both cases , Rd is the
theorical dedection range in nautical miles.
Rd is the theoretical detection range in nautical miles.39
This relationship is of course theoretical since it assumes
that:
(a) Standard atmospheric conditions prevail. .
(b) The radar pulses are sufficiently powerful.
(c) The target response characteristics are such as to
return detectable responses.
(d) The weather conditions, such as precipitation etc.,
through which the pulses have to travel, will not unduly
attenuate the signals.

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Standard atmospheric conditions
'Standard' conditions are precisely defined as:
Pressure=1013mb decreasing at 118mb/1000 m of height
Temperature = 15°C decreasing at 6.5°C/1000 m of height
Relative humidity = 60% and constant with height.

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Sub-refraction
1 The effects of sub-refraction on detection ranges (Figure
3.49)
Sub-refraction Occurs when the refractive index of the
atmosphere decreases less rapidly with height than under
standard conditions. As a result, the radar beam is bent
downward slightly less than under standard conditions.
This means that, with an other factors constant, the same
target will be detected at a slightly reduced range. In
practice, this is likely to mean something of the order of
80% of the detection range under standard conditions but
will obviously depend on the severity of the conditions
prevailing at the time. 42
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 Super refraction:

Super refraction occurs when the rate of decrease in

refractive index with height is greater than under
standart conditions.When sub refraction occurs .the
radar beam tends to be down slightly more and so
targets may be dedected at ranges which are slightly
greater than standart.Increase of some 40% are not
uncommon.

Atmopheric conditions associated with superrefraction

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Extra super –refraction or ducting

Under these conditions , the radar energy is, in effect,

trapped in a “duct” formed by the Earth’s surface and a
highly refractive layer which may be as litle as 100 ft
above the ground.The effect is concentration of energy.
This increase energy will follows the Earth surface , thus
reducing contraint of the radar horizon and considerably
extending the dedection ranges of targets.

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If the rate of change of reflactive index is of the order of 4
times the standart rate, Extra super –refraction occurs.
The areas which are normally associated with extra super-
refraction are the Red Sea, the Arabian Gulf, the
Mediterranean in the summer with the wind from the
south, and the area off the west coast of Africa in the
vicinity of the Canary Islands. However, extra super-
refraction can occur anywhere if the conditions are right.

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The radarflare

This is a rocket which is fired from a pistol. At some 400

metres altitude, the rocket ejects a quantity of dipoles
which respond strongly to 3 cm radar waves and at the
same time the rocket gives out a very bright white light.

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