Review Questions

What are the main differentiating features of 1G, 2G and 3G? What was the bandwidth used in one-direction in 1G AMPS? In DAMPS, how many users share the same bandwidth as AMPS? What are the range of data rates for wideband and broadband wireless systems? What is an unlicensed band? What are some of the typical applications?
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Review Questions on Tutorial Paper

What new technology improved bandwidth efficieny from 1 to 2 bps/Hz to 20 70 bps/Hz? In practice did CDMA turned out to be uplink or downlink limited? In 2G CDMA systems what is the 800 ns limit? How can distributed antenna system help indoor comm? Is GPS readily available indoor?
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Multiple Access Techniques

Multiple Access (MA)

MA is setting up as many transmission paths as required. MA is the way in which the common resources (power and bandwidth) are shared by many users.

Multiple Access Techniques

In terms of circuit assignment

Pre-assignment
Demand assignment Random assignment

In terms of modulation (waveform assignment)

Frequency division multiple access (FDMA) Time division multiple access (TDMA) Code division multiple access (CDMA)

Consider that the following samples of 3 users data to be multiple accessed

User 1 data

User 2 data

User 3 data

Frequency Division Multiple Access

FDMA
bandwidth BW guard band

f
7

Waveforms of Users 1,2 & 3 after FDMA

Input to the amplifier after 3 FDMA signals are added

Nonlinear Effects in FDMA

Received signal is sum of multiple carriers. Receiver power amplifiers are operated nonlinearly (near saturation) for maximum efficiency. The nonlinearities cause intermodulation (IM) frequencies to appear in the amplifier output. IM components can interfere with other channels in the FDMA system.
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Time Division Multiple Access

TDMA systems divide the radio spectrum into time slots. Only one user can transmit or receive during one time slot. Usually, each user may occupy the channel once during a time frame, where one frame comprises N time slots.
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TDMA

12

User 1,2&3 data before and after TDMA

13

TDMA
Slot 1 Slot 2 Slot 3 Slot N

1 frame

trail bits sync. bits

info bits

Guard time

t Each slot requires overhead bits. More overhead reduces efficiency.

14

TDMA Systems
TDMA systems transmit data in a buffer and burst method. The transmission is noncontinuous. Unlike FDMA systems which can transmit analog signals, TDMA must transmit data and digital modulation must be used.

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TDMA Features
Only one carrier. No IM.

Number of time slots per frame depends on bandwidth, desired date rate, modulation technique.
Receiver must synchronize to each time slot, thus more synchronization bits are required in TDMA compared to FDMA. It is possible to allocate more than one time slot per frame bandwidth on demand.
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CDMA
In CDMA signals of different users overlap in time and frequency. The separation is achieved by assigning different codes to each user.

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Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum

Modulator Channel Demodulator

PN sequence generator

PN sequence generator

School of Information Technology and Engineering

18

University of Ottawa

Data PN-1 Data spread by PN-1 PN-2 Data despread by PN-2 Data despread by PN-1

1 1001010 1001010 1011100 1101001 1

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Power Spectrum of DS-SS Signals at Tx

noise level

School of Information Technology and Engineering

20

University of Ottawa

Reuse Patterns

TDMA or FDMA

CDMA
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FDMA/TDMA Forward Link C/I at u1

Interference comes from non-adjacent channels. Suppose B1 tx at power pa, B3 tx at power pb. Let the distances from B1 and B3 to u1 be d1 and d3 respectively.

C=

d bg
n 1

pa

I3

d bg
n 3

pb

C pa d 3 I 3 pb d1

bg bg
n n

u2
u1 d3 d1 d2

B1

B2

B3

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FDMA/TDMA Return Link C/I at B1

Suppose u1 tx at power p1, u2 tx at power p2. Let their distance to B1 be d1 and d2 respectively.

C=

d bg
n 1

p1

I2

d bg
n 2

p2

C p d 1 2 I 2 p2 d1

bg bg
n n

u1 d1

d2

u2 d3

B1

B2

B3

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CDMA Forward Link C/I at u2

Suppose B1 tx at power pa, B2 tx at power pb and B3 tx at power pc Let their distances to U2 be d5, d2 and d4 respectively.

C=

d bg
n 2

pb

I1

d bg
n 5

pa

, I3

d bg
n 4

pc

C , I1 I 3

d bg p p d d bg bg
n 2 a b n n 5 4
u3

pb

u1 d1

u2 d5 d2 d4

d3

B1

B2

B3

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CDMA Return Link C/I at B2

Suppose u1 tx at power p1, u2 tx at power p2 and u3 tx at power p3 Let their distances to B2 be d5, d2 and d4 respectively.

C=

d bg
n 2

p2

I1

d bg
n 5

p1

, I3

d bg
n 4

p3

C , I1 I 3

d bg p p d d bg bg
n 2 1 3 n n 5 4
u3 d3

p2

u1 d1

u2 d5 d2

d4

B1

B2

B3

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Near-Far Effect
A major problem with DS-CDMA is the dominance of a stronger user. Consider 4th power propagation loss. If both users are transmitting at the same power, what is the received power level difference (in dB) if one user is 10 times closer than the other? Near-far effect demonstrated in the above example is not critical in frequency hopped systems.
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Intracell and Intercell Interference in CDMA

A Summary on Multiple Access

FDMA: + Flexible (modulation, transmission rate,etc). Inefficient use of available power to avoid intermodulation (IM) products. Many receivers needed to receive simultaneously from several transmitters. TDMA: + No IM, efficient resource utilization. Synchronization is critical. Peak to average power ratio is high. CDMA: + Flexible (for networking) Generally self interference limited.
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Do systems fall into only one of 3 categories?

f

Answer: In practice NO.

f ,t
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Cellular Concepts

In TDMA and FDMA cells are grouped into clusters.

The total number of channels are equally distributed among all cells in a cluster. The channel allocation pattern is repeated in every cluster. Cells that are allocated the same frequencies cause interference to one another cochannel interference (CCI). 2 5

Clusters
2
5 1 3 7 4 2 5 1 3 4 7 6 Cluster size N=7
31

1
3

4
7 2

1 3

4 7

6 1

5
4 7

6
2

3 6

Clusters (2)
1 2 1 2 3 4 3 1 2 3 4 1 4 1 2 Cluster size N=4
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4 3 2 3

1
4

2
3

Real Cellular Structure

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Clusters (3)
A cluster must be more or less symmetrical and similar North/South and East/West dimensions. We cannot select cluster size arbitrarily. Cluster sizes must satisfy the following: N = i2+ij+j2 where i and j are nonnegative integers. Thus N = 1, 3, 4, 7, 9, 11, 12
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Frequency Re-use
The number of effective channels in a service area can be increased by decreasing the cluster size. However, we cannot decrease the cluster size to as low as we like. Decreasing cluster size decreases distance between cells employing same frequencies which in turn increases co-channel interference.

35

Channel Assignment Strategies

Fixed assignment strategies.
Cells are allocated a predetermined set of voice channels.

Dynamic assignment strategies.

Voice channels are not permanently allocated to a cell.

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Fixed Channel Assignment Strategies

Cells are allocated a fixed set of voice channels. Some channels are reserved for handoffs. If all voice channels are in use, any new call requests are denied access (blocked). One variation allows channel borrowing. When a cell has all of its channels in use, it may request additional channels from a neighboring cell. The MSC supervises the borrowing procedure. The MSC ensures that borrowing does not disrupt or interfere with any calls in progress in the donor cell.
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Dynamic Channel Assignment

Each time a call request is made, the BS requests a channel from the MSC. The MSC then allocates a channel to the cell following an algorithm that takes many factors into account.
MSC allocates a frequency that is not currently in use within the minimum distance. MSC takes likelihood of future blocking in cell.
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Handoffs
Mobile unit periodically monitors, measures and ranks all pilots within its range As a mobile moves from one cell (or sector) to another, connection is rerouted to the new cell. Handoffs must be performed successfully, infrequently and imperceptible to the users. (1) Idle hand-off (2) In-call hand-off Idle hand-off occurs when the mobile unit is on but not actively engaged in a call. In this state the mobile unit monitors the paging channel. One of two conditions can trigger an idle handoff (1) Deterioration in reception quality (2) Another pilot is stronger by a certain level.
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Handoff (handover)
Hard handoff: Channel in source cell is released first and then channel in target cell is engaged. (break before make).This is the only possibility in TDMA or FDMA.
Soft handoff: channel in source cell is retained and used for a while in parallel with channel in target cell.(make before break). This is both a necessity and a blessing for CDMA.
Mobile communicates with multiple BSs during handoff

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Prioritizing Handoffs
It is possible that many mobile users enter the same cell, placing a heavy load on the new cell. The rate of decrease in the received power (which is usually a function of the velocity of the MS), determines the priority of a handoff.

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Softer Handoff
Softer handover refers to the handover between the sectors of a cell. Forward link is the same as soft handover. In return link no need to communicate with other Base stations.Thus it is faster.

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Advantages of Soft Handoff

Contact with a BS is made before the call is switched, and this prevents the mobile losing contact if handoff signal is not heard. Diversity reception provides additional resistance to fading.

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Practical Handoff Considerations

With frequency reuse, a cellular provider can increase system capacity by decreasing cell sizes. With more cells in the same area, and by using the same frequency reuse pattern, the number of effective channels over the same area is increased. However, as the cells decrease in size, the number of handoffs increase.
More channels must be reserved for handoffs. As cells decrease in size, high speed users may require many handoffs per call, which increases probability of call being cut off.
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Practical Handoff Considerations

Low speed users, such as pedestrians, may not need a handoff, even in very small cells.

How can we support both high speed and low speed users while maintaining a high system capacity and low number of handoffs?
Umbrella cell approach.

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Umbrella Cell Approach

Low speed users can be handled by microcells or picocells. High speed users are handled by a larger cell macrocell which is co-located with smaller cells. Speed of MS can be estimated by MSC by observing the rate of change of signal strength.
46

Umbrella Cell Approach

47

Cell Dragging
Low speed users in microcells often enjoy line of sight communications with the BS even when outside of the boundaries of the cell. Thus handoffs may not be made even when the user is well within the boundaries of a new cell. Cochannel interference to other cells will be increased.

48

Interference and Its Effect on Capacity

Interference is the major limiting factor in the performance of cellular radio systems. The two major types of system-generated interference are co-channel interference (CCI) and adjacent channel interference (ACI)
CCI: several cells employ the same set of frequencies in a service area. These are called co-channel cells. An MS or the BS in a cell will receive signals from other cells which are on the same frequency. ACI: sidelobes of signals in adjacent frequencies in the same (or neigboring) cell can interfere with a users signal. 49

Co-channel Interference and System Capacity

Frequencies are reused every N cells. A user is assigned a pair of frequencies for a full duplex call. The user will receive the desired signal from the BS and it will receive from all other BSs transmitting on that frequency.
It is possible that the nearest neighbours are not currently transmitting on that frequency.

The BS receives the signal from the MS as well as from other MSs in other cells transmitting on the same frequency. 50

Co-channel Interference and System Capacity 2

We cannot reduce the effect of CCI simply by increasing the power with which we transmit.
This will create larger CCI in other cells who will then increase their power to compensate.

The signal to CCI power ratio is determined by the distance between co-channels and the propagation exponent of the channel.
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Co-channel Interference and System Capacity 3

Assuming:
Equal cell radii. All MS transmit with same output power. All BS transmit with same output power.

The worst case Signal to Interference power ratio for an MS located on the cell boundary can be approximated by an equation that does not depend on cell radius, but on the cluster size and the path loss exponent.
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Co-channel Interference and System Capacity 4

2 R 5 7 6 2 (3N)1/2R 1 4 2 5 1 4 7 6

3
4

1
3

7
6

> (3N)1/2R

If both BSs are transmitting at same power then signal from interfering BS is (3N)n/2 times weaker than desired signal

53

Co-channel Interference and System Capacity 5

Assuming hexagonal cell shapes, there are 6 nearest interfering cells. Thus C/I > (3N)n/2/6. We use this as worst case C/I. Example: We are setting up a cellular service in an area where the path loss exponent is 3.88. We want a minimum C/I of 18 dB. What is the smallest cluster size which accommodates this?
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Co-channel Interference and System Capacity 6

(3N)1.94/6 > 101.8. (3N)1.94 > 63.16 = 378.6 N > 378.6(1/1.94)/3 = 7.1 N=9 (N = 7 does not guarantee C/I > 18 dB and N = 8 is not allowed).
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Co-channel Interference and System Capacity 7

Thus we can see that the co-channel interference places a constraint on the cluster size which has an effect on the system capacity.
As cluster size decreases, the number of channels per cell increases. If we can accept more CCI, then we can reduce the cluster size. Also, if the pathloss exponent is higher, then the cluster size can also be decreased.
56

Adjacent Channel Interference

The BS receives signals from many users simultaneously. Although signals are filtered to reduce out-of-band emissions, the filtering is not perfect and sidebands exist. If all users transmit at the same power level, then the received power of signals originating from very close to the BS will be much higher than the received power of signals originating from near the cell boundary.
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Adjacent Channel Interference 2

Spectrum of signal 1

Spectrum of signal 2

Signal 2s sidelobe is as strong as signal 1s mainlobe. Performance of signal 1 is severely degraded.

58

Adjacent Channel Interference 3

Suppose a signal is received at the BS with sidebands whose spectral density is 30 dB lower than its main lobe. If the adjacent signal is received 30 dB lower due to distance, then the interfering sideband is roughly the same strength as the desired signal. Because of the near-far problem, a desired signal may be lost in the sidebands of adjacent channel signals.
59

Adjacent Channel Interference 4

To reduce the effect of ACI, the received power levels are controlled. This is also done to ensure that the MS is transmitting at the smallest power necessary to maintain a reliable link. All signals should be received by the BS with power levels that are within a few dB of one another. If a signal is received with a power level above the upper limit, a control message is sent on the FCC. This instructs MS to decrease transmitted power. 60

Why Power Control?

1. To eliminate near-far effect 2. To conserve transmit power.

What is power control?

Power control ensures that each user receives and transmits just enough energy to properly convey information while interfering with other users no more than necessary. Minimizing the transmitted power of a portable user unit maximizes the interval between battery charges.
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Is Power Control Critical in Both Directions?

Critical in the uplink because of Multiple Access Interference (MAI).
In the downlink not critical for MAI but is needed to minimize the interference into other cells and to compensate interference from other cells.

62

Power Control Limitations?

If power control can follow fading perfectly, fading channel becomes an AWGN channel. Hence the practical limitation is how accurately and quickly can channel be estimated. Then comes the step sizes, dynamic range etc.
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Types of Power Control in CDMA

In the reverse direction:
1) Open loop for coarse power adjustment (at the start) 2) Closed loop for refined adjustments (every 1.25 msec) 3) Outer loop to reduce to min level (once per frame)

In the forward direction: adjust to maintain a target quality by:

messaging, or bit signaling
64

Open Loop Power Control

Adjust transmit power to compensate for distance dependent attenuation and shadowing. Power correction based on total received power. Mobile station transmit power defined by tx power(dBm)+ rx power (dBm)= constant + tolerance (typically) constant = -76 dB for 1900 MHz and -73 dB for 800MHz tolerance = +/- 6dB Tyipical time constant of open loop PC is 30 msec
65