Ferrous Alloys Stainless Steels.

A Cornucopia of Stainless Steels.

Stainless steels are
Why are there so many? Why is a steel with 17%

iron-based alloys. There are many available grades of stainless steel, with widely varying compositions. Some natural questions arise:

chromium a ferritic steel, but one with 18% chromium (and 8% nickel) an austenitic steel?
What are the differences

between them all?

Why is Stainless Steel Stainless?

Stainless steels are stainless because of passivation.
Corrosion Rate (mm/year) 0.2

0.1

5 % Chromium

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Stainless Steels. Passivity.

Passivity is due to a self Corrosion resistance

repairing oxide film.

A compact, continuous

film requires ~ 11wt% chromium. Passivity increases with chromium content up to ~17wt% chromium. Most stainless steels contain 17-18wt% chromium.
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depends on maintenance of the passive film. This is optimised for different environments by alloying with other elements.
e.g. Ni, Mo, N, Cu....

The Stainless Steel Family.

Stainless steels can be divided into five families.
Ferritic.

Austenitic.
Martensitic. Martensitic-Austenitic. Ferritic-Austenitic.

These families are based on the crystal phases of iron.

The Crystal Phases of Iron.

Metals are crystalline

Iron can be stable as

Their relative stability

three important crystal phases.

Ferrite.

depends on temperature and chemical composition.

Austenite.
Martensite.
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Ferrite.
Ferrite has a body-centred cubic crystal structure.

Austenite.
Austenite has a face centred cubic crystal structure.

Martensite.
Martensite has a body centred cubic structure, although

this can be distorted by carbon.

Phase Transformations in Steels.

Ferrite Austenite

Martensite
Pure iron is stable as:
austenite above 914C

The austenite-ferrite

phase transformation occurs by diffusional ferrite below 914C. rearrangement of atoms. martensite or ferrite below 550C The austenite-martensite phase transformation These transformation occurs by non-diffusional mechanisms compete. rearrangement of atoms.
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Alloying in Steels.
Different alloying

Temp. Austenite

elements can :
increase austenite

stability to lower temperatures. encourage martensite formation by slowing down the ferrite transformation.

Effect of Alloying

Ferrite
Unstable Austenite

Martensite
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Time

Alloying in Stainless Steels.

Stainless steels are alloyed to control both

microstructure and corrosion resistance. Alloying elements can be austenite or ferrite stabilisers. The stable phase or phases depends on the balance of alloying elements.

The microstructure can be predicted using a Schaeffler-Delong diagram.

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Heat treatment may also affect the microstructure.

The Schaeffler-Delong Diagram. 904 Austenitic Martensitic-Austenitic 316 Ferritic-Austenitic 304 2507 2205 2304 410 Martensitic 430 Ferritic
Chromium Equivalent
Chromium Equivalent = %Cr + 1.5%Si + %Mo Nickel Equivalent = %Ni + 30(%C + %N) + 0.5(%Mn + %Cu + %Co)

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Nickel Equivalent

Why Are These Phases Important?

Ferrite, austenite and martensite have different

properties due to their different crystal structures.

For example:
ferromagnetism. thermal expansion.

thermal conductivity.
resistivity. mechanical properties.
Strength, Ductility and Toughness.

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Stainless Steels. Strength and Ductility.

Martensitic 1000 Stress (MPa) Martensitic-Austenitic Ferritic-Austenitic

750
500 250

Ferritic

Austenitic

0
15

10

20

30 40 Strain (%)

50

60

Strength and Ductility.

Strength can be increased by:
refinement of the microstructure.

work hardening (cold work).

precipitation. alloying.

Strengthening generally reduces ductility.

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Stainless Steels. Toughness.

Toughness depends on temperature.
Austenitic Impact Energy

Ferritic-Austenitic

Ferritic

Martensitic

-200
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-100 0 Temperature (C)

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Stainless Steels. Toughness.

The body centred crystal structure fails by brittle

cleavage at low temperatures. Austenite is not brittle at low temperatures.

Brittle cleavage is encouraged by high strength.

Strengthening generally reduces toughness.

microstructure refinement increases both strength and

toughness.

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Precipitation.
Stainless steels are unstable at high temperatures.

Carbides and Nitrides (550C - 800C). all phases. reduces corrosion resistance and toughness. Intermetallics (700C - 900C). ferrite and austenite (>17% Cr & Mo). reduces corrosion resistance and toughness. 475C Embrittlement (350C - 550C). ferrite and martensite (>15% Cr). reduces toughness. occurs relatively slowly.
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Cool quickly, reduce C & N or stabilise with Ti

Cool quickly

Avoid use at these temperatures

Applications of Stainless Steels.

Alloying
Microstructure

Corrosion Resistance

Cost

Mechanical Properties

Applications
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Ferritic Stainless Steel.

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Typically: 15-30%Cr, < 0.1%C, < 1%Mo

Ferritic Stainless Steels.

Good Corrosion Resistance. including chloride environments.

Good Oxidation Resistance.

Moderate Toughness. Moderate Strength. Moderate Cost. Moderate Formability.
Toughness and weldability are improved by reducing C and N.

Poor to Moderate Weldability.

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Ferritic Stainless Steel Applications.

Pipes, heat exchange tubes, valves and tanks. Food, chemical and paper industries. Chloride environments. High temperature sulphur environments.

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Martensitic Stainless Steel.

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Typically: 12-17%Cr, 0.1-1%C

Martensitic Stainless Steels.

High Strength. Moderate Corrosion Resistance.

Moderate Oxidation Resistance.

Moderate Toughness. Moderate Cost. Moderate Formability.
Martensite-Austenite steels have Poor to Moderate Weldability. higher toughness, improved weldability and higher cost.

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Increasing the carbon content increases strength but reduces toughness, formability and weldability.

Martensitic Stainless Steel Applications.

Martensitic Stainless Steels
0.1%C chemical plant, turbine blades, compressors and discs. 0.3%C cutlery, gears, bearings, needle valves. 0.6%C razor blades. 1%C surgical instruments, high temperature bearings. Martensitic-Austenitic Stainless Steels have similar applications demanding higher toughness.
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Austenitic Stainless Steel.

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Typically: 18%Cr, >8%Ni, <0.1%C

Austenitic Stainless Steels.

Excellent Corrosion Resistance. except chloride environments

Good Oxidation Resistance.

High Toughness. Low to Moderate Strength. Good Formability. Good Weldability. High Cost.
Molybdenum improves corrosion resistance, but requires higher Nickel to stabilise austenite.
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Low Carbon or addition of Titanium to avoid sensitisation

Austenitic Stainless Steel Applications.

Very widely used.
pipes, heat exchangers, tanks for food, chemical,

pharmaceutical, offshore and paper industries.

Higher alloy steels used in more aggressive

environments.

Good creep resistance and oxidation resistance at high temperatures.

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Good toughness at cryogenic temperatures. Non-magnetic.

Austenitic Stainless Steels. Welding Concerns. 300 series typically has 8 - 20% Ni & 16 - 25% C
Most common are 200 &

300 series. Alloying elements vary significantly. Specific alloy composition has major effect on weldability and as welded microstructure.

Susceptible to solidification

and liquation cracking.

Centerline and transverse cracks as well as microfissures in the underlying weld or HAZ. Due to low melting liquid phases that allow boundries to separate under thermal and shrinkage stresses during solidification.

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Austenitic Stainless Steels. 300 series typically has 8 - 20% Ni & 16 - 25% C Welding Concerns.
Despite cracking

concerns considered most weldable Thermal conductivity roughly half of Ferritic alloys.
Reduced heat input required to achieve equivalent penetration
Coeff. Of thermal exp.

Increase in distortion and residual stresses due to welding.

The molten weld pool of the

austenitic ss is more viscous, or sluggish, than ferritic and martensitic alloys.

This slows down the metal flow and wettability of welds, which may promote lack-of-fusion defects.

30-40% > Ferrite.

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Duplex Stainless Steels.

Ferrite

Austenite

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Ferritic-Austenitic (Duplex) Stainless Steels.

Typically: 22%Cr, 5%Ni, 0.03%C, 0.08%N

Excellent Corrosion Resistance. including chloride environments

High Toughness. Moderate to High Strength. Good Formability. Good Weldability. High Cost.

Strength approximately twice that of austenitic steels with comparable corrosion resistance Higher alloy, high nitrogen grades are being introduced.

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Duplex Stainless Steel Applications.

High strength substitute for austenitic steels.
high strength reduces weight and cost.

Piping, tanks, vessels in chloride environments.

chemical, oil, gas, paper industries.

Structural components requiring corrosion fatigue

resistance.
suction rollers in paper industry. seawater pumps and impellers in offshore industry.

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Welding of Carbon steels to Stainless Steels

The Shaeffler Diagram
The Nickel and other elements that form Austenite,are plotted against Chrome and other elements that form ferrite, using the following formula:- A typical 309L welding consumable Ni Equiv = 14.35, Cr Equiv = 24.9 The main disadvantage with this diagram is that it does not represent Nitrogen,which is a very strong Austenite former.

Nickel Equivalent = %Ni + 30%C + 0.5%Mn

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Chrome Equivalent = %Cr + Mo + 1.5%Si + 0.5%Nb

The Ferrite Number DeLong Diagram

The ferrite number uses magnetic attraction as a means of measuring the proportion of delta ferrite present. The ferrite number is plotted on a modified Shaeffler diagram, the Delong Diagram.

Nickel Equivalent = %Ni + 30%C + 0.5%Mn +30%N

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Chrome Equivalent = %Cr + Mo + 1.5%Si + 0.5%Nb

The Chrome and Nickel equivalent is the same as that used for the Shaeffler diagram, except that the Nickel equivalent includes the addition of 30 times the Nitrogen content.

Welding of Carbon steels to Stainless SteelsThe Shaeffler diagram below EXAMPLE:

illustrates a carbon steel C.S , welded with out filler metal. If the welds molten pool spans two different metals theprocess becomes more complicated. First plot both parent metals on the Shaeffler diagram and connect them with a line. If both parent metals are diluted by the same amount, plot a false point B on the diagram midway between them. (Point B represents the microstructure of the weld if no filler metal was applied.)
Nickel Equivalent = %Ni + 30%C + 0.5%Mn +30%N Chrome Equivalent = %Cr + Mo + 1.5%Si + 0.5%Nb
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Welding of Carbon steels to Stainless SteelsThe Shaeffler diagram below EXAMPLE:

illustrates a carbon steel C.S , welded with out filler metal. If the welds molten pool spans two different metals the process becomes more complicated. First plot both parent metals on the Shaeffler diagram and connect them with a line. If both parent metals are diluted by the same amount, plot a false point B on the diagram midway between them. (Point B represents the microstructure of the weld if no filler metal was applied.)
Nickel Equivalent = %Ni + 30%C + 0.5%Mn +30%N Chrome Equivalent = %Cr + Mo + 1.5%Si + 0.5%Nb
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Welding of Carbon steels to Stainless SteelsThe Shaeffler diagram below EXAMPLE:

illustrates a carbon steel C.S , welded with out filler metal. If the welds molten pool spans two different metals theprocess becomes more complicated. First plot both parent metals on the Shaeffler diagram and connect them with a line. If both parent metals are diluted by the same amount, plot a false point B on the diagram midway between them. (Point B represents the microstructure of the weld if no filler metal was applied.)
Nickel Equivalent = %Ni + 30%C + 0.5%Mn +30%N Chrome Equivalent = %Cr + Mo + 1.5%Si + 0.5%Nb
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EFFECT OF DILUTION

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Stainless Steels. Summary. Stainless Steels are quite simple (in principle!)
Mechanical properties Why are there so many

depend on microstructure.
Microstructure depends

steels?
Due to optimisation of

on alloying. Can I have a strong, tough, corrosion resistant and cheap stainless steel?
Maybe - it depends on

corrosion resistance for particular environments while maintaining the desired microstructure.

the environment.
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