Elasticity

Kristine G. Guevarra.TCSHS III-Lavosier, Dalton & Pascal

An inelastic body is one that does not return to its original shape after a deformation.

Dough or Bread

Clay

Inelastic Ball

Elastic or Inelastic?

An elastic collision loses no energy. The deformation on collision is fully restored.

In an inelastic collision, energy is lost and the deformation may be permanent.

All objects are deformable. It is possible to change the shape or the size of an object by applying external forces. However, internal forces in the object resist deformation.

Robert Hooke

Go!

Hookes law Robert Hooke, in 1676, ten years after the Great Fire of London, noted that for a spring, the extension was proportional to the load. It is now more generally stated that in certain cases, the extension (L) is proportional to the load (F).

F0

L
F

F L
7

TPS 2008

Hookes law

Hookes law holds true in some cases of:

Tensile forces (stretching forces)

and in some cases of

Compressive forces (squashing forces)

Forces and springs

Hookes law

The constant of proportionality (k) is called the spring constant.

F kL
What are the units of the spring constant?

F0

10

Hookes law

Rearranging the equation we get:

F k L
So the units will be:

F0

N m-1
11

Hookes law

Rearranging the equation we get:

F k L

F0

The spring constant k is a measure of the elasticity of the spring.

12

Hookes law

You might see this written with a minus sign in the equation. This indicates that F is the restoring force, acting against the direction of the extension.

F0

F kL

13

Elastic limit

Force (N)

The extension of a spring is proportional to the force applied (until the elastic limit is reached)
Extension (cm)

Hookes law

BUNGEE jumping utilizes a long elastic strap which stretches until it reaches a maximum length that is proportional to the weight of the jumper. The elasticity of the strap determines the amplitude of the resulting vibrations. If the elastic limit for the strap is exceeded, the rope will break.

Example 1
A spring has a spring constant, k, of 10 Ncm-1.

Hookes law

What will the extension be for a load of 50 N?

F0

F kx 50 10 x x
x 50 10

x?

50 N

x 5 cm
16

Example 2 A spring has a spring constant, k, of 5 Ncm-1. What load will cause it to stretch by 15 cm?
F kx F 5 x15 F 75 N
F0 15 cm

Hookes law

F?

17

Hookes law

Example 3 A spring stretches 12 cm under a load of 36 N. What is the spring constant of the spring?
F kx 36 k x 12
k 36 12

F 0 12 cm
36 N

k 3 N cm

18

Example 4
An unloaded spring is 12 cm long. If a weight of 15N is hung on the end of it, it extends to 18 cm long.
12 cm 18 cm

Hookes law

0N

How long will the spring be, if a weight of 7.5 N is hung on it?
Using information from the first paragraph of the question we get: Note that the extension, x, is: 18 -12 = 6 cm

15 N

F kx 15 k x 6
k 15 6

k 5/2 N cm

19

Hookes law Example 4 An unloaded spring is 12 cm long. If a weight of 15N is hung on the end of it, it extends to 18 cm long.

12 cm l cm

0N

How long will the spring be, if a weight of 7.5 N is hung on it?
Now using the information from the second paragraph:

x
7.5 N

F kx 7.5 (5/2) x x x 7.5 (5 / 2) x 3 cm

So the length of the spring will be: The original length + the extension

l 15 cm
20

Stress and Strain: Stress: is the distorting force applied to an object per unit cross sectional area

Force Stress Area

Strain: is a measure of the degree of deformation as a result of stress

L Strain LO

Stress is the ratio of an applied force F to the area A over which it acts:
F Stress A N lb Units : Pa 2 or m in.2

Strain is the relative change in the dimensions or shape of a body as the result of an applied stress:
Examples: Change in length per unit length; change in volume per unit volume.

Longitudinal Stress and Strain

L

A F A

F Stress A

For wires, rods, and bars, there is a longitudinal stress F/A that produces a change in length per unit length. In such cases: L Strain L

Example 1. A steel wire 10 m long and 2 mm in diameter is attached to the ceiling and a 200-N weight is attached to the end. What is the applied stress? First find area of wire:
L A F A

D
4

(0.002 m)
4

A = 3.14 x 10-6 m2

F 200 N Stress A 3.14 x 10-6 m2

Stress 6.37 x 107 Pa

Example 1 (Cont.) A 10 m steel wire stretches 3.08 mm due to the 200 N load. What is the longitudinal strain? Given: L = 10 m; L = 3.08 mm

L 0.00308 m Srain L 10 m
Longitudinal Strain
3.08 x 10-4

The Elastic Limit

The elastic limit is the maximum stress a body can experience without becoming permanently deformed.
2m
F

2m

Okay

F Stress A

W W

Beyond limit

If the stress exceeds the elastic limit, the final length will be longer than the original 2 m.

The Ultimate Strength

The ultimate strength is the greatest stress a body can experience without breaking or rupturing.
2m
F

F Stress A

W W

W W

If the stress exceeds the ultimate strength, the string breaks!

Example 2. The elastic limit for steel is 2.48 x 108 Pa. What is the maximum weight that can be supported without exceeding the elastic limit?
Recall: A = 3.14 x 10-6 m2

A F A

F Stress 2.48 x 108 Pa A

F = (2.48 x 108 Pa) A

F = (2.48 x 108 Pa)(3.14 x 10-6 m2)

F = 779 N

Example 2(Cont.) The ultimate strength for steel is 4.89 x 108 Pa. What is the maxi- mum weight that can be supported without breaking the wire? Recall: A = 3.14 x 10-6 m2
L A F A

F Stress 4.89 x 108 Pa A

F = (4.89 x 108 Pa) A

F = (4.89 x 108 Pa)(3.14 x 10-6 m2)

F = 1536 N

The Modulus of Elasticity

Provided that the elastic limit is not exceeded, an elastic deformation (strain) is directly proportional to the magnitude of the applied force per unit area (stress).
stress Modulus of Elasticity strain

Example 3. In our previous example, the stress applied to the steel wire was 6.37 x 107 Pa and the strain was 3.08 x 10-4. Find the modulus of elasticity for steel.
L

Stress 6.37 x 10 Pa Modulus -4 Strain 3.08 x 10

Modulus = 2.07 x 1011 Pa

This longitudinal modulus of elasticity is called Youngs Modulus and is denoted by the symbol Y.

Youngs Modulus
For materials whose length is much greater than the width or thickness, we are concerned with the longitudinal modulus of elasticity, or Youngs Modulus (Y).

longitudinal stress Young ' s modulus longitudinal strain

F/A FL lb Y Units : Pa or 2 L / L A L in.

Example 4: Youngs modulus for brass is 8.96 x 1011Pa. A 120-N weight is attached to an 8-m length of brass wire; find the increase in length. The diameter is 1.5 mm.

8m

L
120 N

First find area of wire: 2 D (0.0015 m)2 A 4 4

A = 1.77 x 10-6 m2

FL FL Y or L AL AY

Example 4: (Continued)
Y = 8.96 x 1011 Pa; F = 120 N;
8m

L = 8 m; A = 1.77 x 10-6 m2 F = 120 N; L = ?

FL FL 120 N Y or L AL AY FL (120 N)(8.00 m) L AY (1.77 x 10-6 m 2 )(8.96 x 1011Pa)

Increase in length:

L = 0.605 mm

Shear Modulus
A shearing stress alters only the shape of the body, leaving the volume unchanged. For example, consider equal and opposite shearing forces F acting on the cube below:
A d F l f F

The shearing force F produces a shearing angle f. The angle f is the strain and the stress is given by F/A as before.

Calculating Shear Modulus

d A F

Stress is force per unit area:

F Stress A

The strain is the angle expressed in radians:

d Strain f l
shearing strain

The shear modulus S is defined as the ratio of the shearing stress F/A to the

f:

The shear modulus: Units are in Pascals.

F A

Example 5. A steel stud (S = 8.27 x 1010Pa) 1 cm in diameter projects 4 cm from the wall. A 36,000 N shearing force is applied to the end. What is the defection d of the stud? 2 2 D (0.01 m) l A 4 4 d
Area: A = 7.85 x 10-5 m2

F A

F A Fl ; d l Ad

Fl d AS
d = 0.222 mm

(36, 000 N)(0.04 m) d (7.85 x 10-5 m 2 )(8.27 x 1010 Pa)

Volume Elasticity
Not all deformations are linear. Sometimes an applied stress F/A results in a decrease of volume. In such cases, there is a bulk modulus B of elasticity.

Volume stress F A B Volume strain V V

The bulk modulus is negative because of decrease in V.

The Bulk Modulus

Volume stress F A B Volume strain V V
Since F/A is generally pressure P, we may write:

P PV B V / V V
Units remain in Pascals (Pa) since the strain is unitless.

Example 7. A hydrostatic press contains 5 liters of oil. Find the decrease in volume of the oil if it is subjected to a pressure of 3000 kPa. (Assume that B = 1700 MPa.)

P PV B V / V V
PV (3 x 10 Pa)(5 L) V B (1.70 x 109 Pa)
6
Decrease in V; milliliters (mL):

V = -8.82 mL

Summary: Elastic and Inelastic

An elastic body is one that returns to its original shape after a deformation.

An elastic collision loses no energy. The deform-ation on collision is fully restored.

An inelastic body is one that does not return to its original shape after a deformation.

In an inelastic collision, energy is lost and the deformation may be permanent.

Summary Types of Stress

A tensile stress occurs when equal and opposite forces are directed away from each other.

W
Tension

A compressive stress occurs when equal and opposite forces are directed toward each other.

W
F
Compression

Summary of Definitions
Stress is the ratio of an applied force F to the area A over which it acts:

F Stress A

N lb Units : Pa 2 or m in.2

Strain is the relative change in the dimensions or shape of a body as the result of an applied stress:

change in Examples: Change in length per unit length; volume per unit volume.

Longitudinal Stress and Strain

L For wires, rods, and bars, there is a longitudinal stress F/A that produces a change in length per unit length. In such cases:

A F A

F Stress A

L Strain L

The Elastic Limit

The elastic limit is the maximum stress a body can experience without becoming permanently deformed.

The Ultimate Strength

The ultimate strength is the greatest stress a body can experience without breaking or rupturing.

Youngs Modulus
For materials whose length is much greater than the width or thickness, we are concerned with the longitudinal modulus of elasticity, or Youngs Modulus Y.

longitudinal stress Young ' s modulus longitudinal strain

F/A FL Y L / L A L

lb Units : Pa or 2 in.

The Shear Modulus

d A F

Stress is force per unit area:

F Stress A

The strain is the angle expressed in radians:

d Strain f l
shearing strain

The shear modulus S is defined as the ratio of the shearing stress F/A to the

f:

The shear modulus: Units are in Pascals.

F A

The Bulk Modulus

Volume stress F A B Volume strain V V
Since F/A is generally pressure P, we may write:

P PV B V / V V
Units remain in Pascals (Pa) since the strain is unitless.

CONCLUSION: Chapter 13 - Elasticity

The constant of the proportionality depends on the material being deformed and on the nature of deformation We call this proportionality constant the elastic modulus.

The elastic modulus is therefore the ratio of stress to the resulting strain. Modulus of Elasticity=Stress/Strain
In a very real sense it is a comparison of what is done to a solid object (a force is applied) and how that object responds (it deforms to some extent)

We consider three types of deformation and define an elastic modulus for each:

Youngs Modulus: which measures the resistance of a solid to a change in its length 2. Shear Modulus: which measures the resistance to motion of the planes of a solid sliding past each other 3. Bulk Modulus: which measures the resistance of solids or liquids to changes in their volume
1.

Youngs Modulus:

Consider a long bar of cross sectional area A and initial length Li that is clamped at one end. When an external force is applied perpendicular to the cross section internal forces in the bar resist distortion stretching but the bar attains an equilibrium in which its length Lf is greater than Li and in which the external force is exactly balanced by internal forces.

In such a situation the bar is said to be stressed. We define the tensile stress as the ratio of the magnitude of the external force F to the cross sectional area A. the tensile strain in this case is defines as the ratio of the change in length L to the original length Li. Y=tensile stress/ tensile strain Y=(F/A)/(L/Li)

The Elastic Limit:

The elastic limit of a substance is defined as the maximum stress that can be applied to the substance before it becomes permanently deformed. It is possible to exceed the elastic limit of a substance by applying sufficiently large stress, as seen in in the figure

Initially a stress strain curve is a straight line. As the stress increases, however the curve is no longer a straight line.

When the stress exceeds the elastic limit the object is permanently distorted and it does not return to its original shape after the stress is removed.

What is Youngs modulus for the elastic solid whose stress strain curve is depicted in the figure ??

Youngs modulus is given by the ratio of stress to

strain which is the slope of the elastic behavior section of the graph in slide 9 reading from the

graph we note that a stress of approximately

3x10N/m results in a strain of 0.003. The slope, and hence Youngs modulus are therefore

10x10N/m.

Shear Modulus:

Another type of deformation occurs when an object is subjected to a force tangential to one of its faces while the opposite face is held fixed by another force. The stress in this case is called a shear stress.

If the object is originally a rectangular block a shear stress results in a shape whose cross section is a parallelogram. To a first approximation (for small distortions) no change in volume occurs with this deformation. We define the shear stress as F/A, the ratio of the tangential to the area of A of the force being sheared.

The shear strain is defined as the ratio X/H where X is the horizontal distance that the sheared force moves and H is the height of the object. In terms of these quantities the shear modulus is S= shear stress/ shear strain S= (F/A)/ (X/H)

Bulk Modulus:

Bulk modulus characterizes the response of a substance to uniform squeezing or to a reduction in pressure when the object is placed in a partial vacuum. Suppose that the external forces acting on an object are at right angles to all its faces, and that they are distributed uniformly over all the faces.

A uniform distribution of forces occur when an object is immersed in a fluid. An object subject to this type of deformation undergoes a change in volume but no change in shape. The volume stress is defined as the ratio of the magnitude of the normal force F to the area A. The quantity P=F/A is called the pressure. If the pressure on an object changes by an amount P= F/A the object will experience a volume change V.

The volume strain is equal to the change in volume V divided by the initial volume Vi B= volume stress/volume strain B=-(F/A)/( V/Vi) B=- P/(V/Vi)

When a solid is under uniform pressure it undergoes a change in volume but no change in shape. This cube is compressed on all sides by forces normal to its 6 faces.

Prestressed Concrete:

If the stress on a solid object exceeds a certain value, the object fractures. The maximum stress that can be applied before fracture occurs depends on the nature of the material and on the type of applied stress.

For example concrete has a tensile strength of about 2 x 106 N/m, a compressive strength of 20 x 106 N/m, and a shear strength of 2 x 106 N/m.
It is common practice to use large safety factors to prevent failure in concrete structures.

Concrete is normally very brittle when it is cast in thin sections. Thus concrete slabs tend to slab and crack at unsupported areas as shown in figure A.

The slab can be strengthened by the use of steal rods to reinforce the concrete as illustrated in figure B. Because concrete is much stronger under compression squeezing than under tension stretching or shear, vertical columns of concrete can support very heavy loads, whereas horizontal beams of concrete tend to sag and crack.

However, a significant increase in shear strength is achieved if the reinforced concrete is prestressed as shown in figure C. As the concrete is being poured the steal rods are held under tension by external forces.

The external forces are released after the concrete cures this results in a permanent tension in the steel and hence a compressive stress on the concrete. This

enables the concrete slab to support a

much heavier load.

Viscosity:

The term viscosity is commonly used in the description of fluid flow to characterize the degree of internal friction, or viscous force is associated with the resistance that two adjacent layers of fluid have to moving relative to each other. Viscosity causes part of the kinetic energy of a fluid to be converted to internal energy.

Units of Measure

Dynamic viscosity and absolute viscosity are synonymous. The IUPAC symbol for viscosity is the Greek symbol eta (), and dynamic viscosity is also commonly referred to using the Greek symbol mu (). The SI physical unit of dynamic viscosity is the

Pascal-second (Pas), which is identical to 1 kgm1s1. If a

fluid with a viscosity of one Pas is placed between two plates, and one plate is pushed sideways with a shear stress of one

Pascal, it moves a distance equal to the thickness of the layer

between the plates in one second.

The name Poiseuille (Pl) was proposed for this unit (after Jean Louis Marie Poiseuille who formulated Poiseuille's law of viscous flow), but not accepted internationally. Care must be taken in not confusing the Poiseuille with the poise named after the same person.

The cgs physical unit for dynamic viscosity is the poise (P), named

after Jean Louis Marie Poiseuille. It is more commonly expressed,

particularly in ASTM standards, as centipoise (cP). The centipoise is commonly used because water has a viscosity of 1.0020 cP (at 20 C; the closeness to one is a convenient coincidence). 1 P = 1 gcm1s1

The relation between poise and Pascal-seconds is: 10 P = 1 kgm1s1 = 1 Pas 1 cP = 0.001 Pas = 1 mPas

Example 1

A solid brass sphere is initially surrounded by air, the air pressure exerted on it is 1.0 x 10 N/m (normal atmospheric pressure) the sphere is lowered into the ocean to a depth which the pressure is 2.0 x 10 N/m . The volume of the sphere in air is 0.50 m. By how much does this volume change once the sphere is submerged ?

From the definition of bulk modulus, we have B= - P / (V/Vi) V = - (Vi P) / B Because the final pressure is so much greater than the initial pressure, we neglect the initial pressure and state that P = Pf Pi Pf = 2.0 x 10 N/m Therefore V = - (0.5 m) (2.0 x 10 N/m) 6.1 x 10 N/ m

= 1.6 x 10 m The negative sign indicates a decrease in volume.

Example 2

We analyzed a cable used to support an actor as he swung onto the stage. The tension in the cable was 940 N. what diameter should a 10-m-long steel wire have if we do not want it to stretch more than 0.5cm under these conditions?

From the definition of Youngs modulus, we can solve for the required crosssectional area. Assuming that the crosssectional is circular, we can determine the diameter of the wire. Y=(F/A)/(L/Li) A=(F Li)/(Y L) = (940N)(10m) . (20 x 10N/m)(0.005m) = 9.4x10(-6) m

The radius of the wire can be found from A=r r= (A/ ) = (9.4x10(-6) m/ ) =1.7x10m =1.7mm D=2r = 2(1.7mm) = 3.4mm To provide a large margin of safety, we should probably use a flexible cable made up of many smaller wires having a total cross-sectional area substantially greater than our calculated value.

References:
Physics For Scientists and Engineers (Serway . Beichner).