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determine how the quantity of water in the region can be changed. across which water may move or be confined. You also need to specify a time period.
Depression Storage
So what is storage depression? It is the water retained in puddles,
ditches, and other depressions in the surface of the ground.
Interception
As water reaches the surface in various
forms of precipitation, it is intercepted by plants or falls directly to the surface.
stems of plants is known as interception.
Interception (contd)
Interception (or canopy interception) typically
refers to precipitation that does not reach the soil, but is instead intercepted by the leaves and branches of plants.
It occurs in the canopy and in the forest litter. Because of evaporation, interception of liquid
water generally tends to loss of that precipitation for the drainage basin, except for cases such as fog interception.
Interception (contd)
Intercepted snowfall does not result in any notable
amount of evaporation, and most of the snow falls off the tree by wind or melt. with the wind, out of the watershed.
However, intercepted snow can more easily drift Conifers have greater interception than hardwoods.
Their needs gives them more surface area for droplets to adhere to, and they have foliage in spring and fall; therefore, interception also depends on the type of vegetation in the wooded area.
Interception (contd)
Water is held on the leaf surface until it
either drips off as through fall or trickles down the leaf finally reaching the ground as stem flow.
against erosion.
Interception of falling rain buffers the surface Coniferous trees tend to intercept more water
than deciduous trees on an annual basis because deciduous trees drop their leaves for a period of time.
Interception (contd)
Upon reaching the ground, some water
infiltrates into the soil, possible percolating down to the groundwater table, or it may run across the surface as runoff.
into the surface of the soil.
Interception (contd)
High infiltration rates occur in dry soils, with
infiltration slowing as the soil becomes wet.
However, coarse textured soils fill more quickly Runoff is generated quicker than one might
Interception (contd)
Vegetation also affects infiltration.
For instance, infiltration is higher for soils
under forest vegetation than bare soils. through which water can enter the soil.
Tree roots loosen and provide conduits Foliage and surface litter reduce the impact
of falling rain keeping soil passages from becoming sealed.
Interception (contd)
An article has been provided to you as an
e-mail attachment addressing the impact of interception losses on the water balances in forested mountain ranges.
transpiration is constant for any time and place, so evaporation of intercepted moisture simply replaces the evapotranspiration that would have occurred in the absence of precipitation.
made on the volume and rate of discharge. As an example, the control point can be an inlet grate at the lowest elevation of the parking lot. If the parking lot is constructed with curbs to contain the water on site, the boundary is easily determined.
remains on the surface of the parking lot, and is routed to a control point. This water volume is given the term rainfall excess . The rate at which rainfall excess appears over time at a discharge (control) point is called runoff.
depict storage depression during a storm (in the faculty parking lot near Hoehn Engineering Building).
surface, the accumulation term is zero with input equal to precipitation, and output equal to rainfall excess, or:
Rainfall excess = Volume of precipitation {2}
storage in the parking lot, then the water balance in volume terms is altered as shown below: Rainfall excess = Precipitation Depression storage {3}
(water balance) depends on the physical system and the ultimate use of the balance. complex with many parameters.
written to account for depression storage or evaporation (if applicable), using the following equation: R (I ) = d' [P (t) D (t)] EVP {4}
where:
(fraction) P (t) = rainfall depth during time increment t, (depth) D (t) = depression storage during time increment t, (depth) EVP = portion of rainfall excess which is evaporated before runoff (fraction)
Ultimately, all the water stored in depressions The amount of precipitation going into
will either evaporate or seep into the complex. Thus, depressions vary widely in size, degree of interconnection, and contributing drainage area.
depression storage will approach zero, given that there is a large enough volume of precipitation to exceed other losses to surface storage, such as infiltration and evaporation.
depressions at any given time can be approximated using the following relationship:
{5}
V = volume actually in storage at the time of
interest S d = maximum storage capacity of the depression P e = the rainfall excess (gross rainfall evaporation, interception, and infiltration) k = constant equivalent to 1/S d
either be determined or assumed if depression storage losses are to be abstracted from the gross rainfall input.
the largest depressions are graded with the largest ones occurring downstream. If abstraction storage were abstracted in this way, the total volume would be deducted from the initial storm such as depicted in Figure 5.2 of your text.
storage
intensity
to the overland flow plus depression storage supply is given by the following relationship:
{6}
Sd
dP e dt
{9}
gross rainfall minus the infiltrated water, and noting that the derivative with respect to time can be approximated by the equivalent intensity (i f ), the intensity of depression storage then becomes:
v = e k
Pe
(i f )
{10}
Pe
{11}
accumulation increases, the ratio of /(i f ) in its limit approaches a value of 1.0.
Figure 5.3. Depth distribution curve of depression storage. Enter graph from top, read down to selected curve, and project right or left as desired.
Interception
Part of the storm precipitation that occurs
is intercepted by vegetation and other forms of cover on the drainage area. Interception can be defined as that segment of the gross precipitation input which wets and adheres to the ground objects until it is returned to the atmosphere through evaporation.
Interception (contd)
Precipitation striking vegetation may be
retained on leaves or blades of grass, flow down the stems of plants and become stem flow, or fall off the leaves to become part of the throughfall. The modifying effect that a forest canopy can have on rainfall intensity at the ground (the throughfall) can be put to practical use in watershed management schemes.
Interception (contd)
The amount of water intercepted is a
function of the following:
The storm character;
The species, age, and density of prevailing plants and trees; and
The season of the year.
Interception (contd)
Typically, 1020% of the precipitation that
falls during a growing season is intercepted and returned to the hydrologic cycle via evaporation. Your text cites various percentages of interception for various plant types and seasons. initial storm period, and the rate of interception quickly approaches zero thereafter.
Interception (contd)
Potential storm interception losses can be
estimated using the following equation:
Li = S + K E t
where: L i = volume of water intercepted, (in)
{12}
S K E t
= interception storage that will be retained on the foliage against the forces of wind and gravity [the value typically varies between 0.01 and 0.05 in.) = ratio of surface area of intercepting leaves to horizontal projection of this area; = amount of water evaporated per hour during the precipitation period, (in) = time, (hr)
Interception (contd)
Total interception by an individual plant is
directly related to the amount of foliage and its character and orientation. for various crops and grasses.
Interception (contd)
The above equation can be used to estimate
total interception losses.
For analyses of individual storms, it is also A general equation for estimating such losses is
not available, since most studies have been related to particular species or experimental plots strongly associated with a given locality.
Interception (contd)
In addition, the loss function varies with the
storms character.
estimated volume entirely from the initial period of the storm (initial abstraction).
Interception (contd)
The above equation was developed with
the assumption that rainfall is sufficient to fully satisfy the storage term S.
rainfall amount:
where P is the precipitation (rainfall), and the other terms are as described in Equation {12}.
Interception (contd)
Precipitation type, rainfall intensity and
duration, wind, and atmospheric conditions affecting evaporation all are factors that affect interception losses. be significant modeling. in annual or log-term
Estimates of loss to gross precipitation may For heavy rainfalls during individual storm
events, accounting for interception may have minimal (negligible) significance in the overall water balance.
Interception (contd)
You should also note that there can be
considerable variation losses areally. in interception
estimated volume from the initial period of the storm (commonly termed initial abstraction).
Interception Example
Example: The following equations derived by
For ash trees: L i = 0.015 + 0.23 P For oak trees: L i = 0.03 + 0.22 P
where L i is the volume of water intercepted (in inches) and P is the precipitation (in inches). Estimate the interception loss beneath trees during a storm having a total precipitation of 1.5 inches.
L i = 0.015 + 0.23 P
= 0.015 + 0.23 (1.5 in) = (0.015 + 0.345) in = 0.360 in 2. For oak trees:
L i = 0.03 + 0.22 P
= 0.03 + 0.22 (1.5 in) = (0.03 + 0.33) in = 0.36 in
Interception Example
3. Using the curve for mean percentage
interception by trees, the percentage interception ~24%. Thus:
Recall: Thus:
dictates the proportionate area of the watershed amplifying the peak, and the intensity of rainfall during this period of time determines the resulting highest discharge.
An inflection point indicates the time at At this time, maximum storage of the
The conditions of maximum storage and Extended rainfall may occur, but variations in
equilibrium are seldom, if ever, attained in nature. intensity throughout its duration negate any possibility of a DRH of the theoretical shape for constant rainfall intensity.
depends on the intensity and duration of the rainfall, and the size, slope, shape, and storage capacity of the watershed. isolated rainstorm, the DRH begins to descend, its source of supply coming largely from water accumulated within the watershed such as detention and channel storage.