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Cecie Starr Christine Evers Lisa Starr

www.cengage.com/chemistry/brown

Chapter 7 How Cells Release Chemical Energy

Albia Dugger Miami Dade College

Cecie Starr Christine Evers Lisa Starr


www.cengage.com/chemistry/brown

Albia Dugger Miami Dade College

7.1 When Mitochondria Spin Their Wheels


Mitochondria produce ATP by aerobic respiration Electron transfer chains in mitochondrial membranes set up H+ gradients that power ATP formation Many disorders related to defective mitochondria: Example: Friedreichs ataxia ( ), causing loss of coordination (ataxia), weak muscles, and heart problems
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7.2 Extracting Energy From Carbohydrates


Anaerobic and aerobic pathways of carbohydrate breakdown start in the cytoplasm with glycolysis, which converts glucose and other sugars to pyruvate Anaerobic fermentation pathways end in cytoplasm and yield two ATP per molecule of glucose

Aerobic Respiration
This equation summarizes aerobic respiration: C6H12O6 (glucose) + 6 O2 6 CO2 + 6 H2O

Carbohydrate Breakdown Pathways


Both fermentation and aerobic respiration begin in the cytoplasm with glycolysis After glycolysis: Aerobic respiration continues inside mitochondria, and ends when oxygen accepts electrons at the end of electron transfer chains Fermentation ends in the cytoplasm, where a molecule other than oxygen accepts electrons
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7.3 Glycolysis: Glucose Breakdown Starts


Glycolysis, the first stage of aerobic respiration and fermentation, occurs in cytoplasm Enzymes use 2 ATP to convert 1 molecule of glucose or another six-carbon sugar to 2 molecules of pyruvate

Energy Transfer
Electrons and hydrogen ions are transferred to 2 NAD+, which are reduced to 2 NADH 4 ATP form by substrate-level phosphorylation substrate-level phosphorylation A reaction that transfers a phosphate group from a substrate directly to ADP, thus forming ATP

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5 Steps of Glycolysis
1. An enzyme transfers a phosphate group from ATP to glucose, forming glucose-6-phosphate 2. A phosphate group from a second ATP is transferred to glucose-6-phosphate The resulting unstable molecule splits into 2 threecarbon molecules of PGAL (phosphoglyceraldehyde) 2 ATP have been invested in the reactions (p. 111)
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5 Steps of Glycolysis
3. Enzymes attach a phosphate to the 2 PGAL, and transfer 2 electrons and 1 hydrogen ion from each PGAL to NAD+ 2 PGA (phosphoglycerate) and 2 NADH form

4. Enzymes transfer a phosphate group from each PGA to ADP 2 ATP have formed by substrate-level phosphorylation The original investment of 2 ATP has been recovered
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5 Steps of Glycolysis

5. Enzymes transfer a phosphate group from each of 2 intermediates to ADP 2 molecules of pyruvate form at this last step 2 more ATP have formed by substrate-level phosphorylation

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Products of Glycolysis

Glycolysis yields 2 NADH, 2 ATP (net), and 2 pyruvate for each glucose molecule Depending on the type of cell and environmental conditions, pyruvate may enter the second stage of aerobic respiration or may be used in other ways, such as in fermentation

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7.4 Second Stage of Aerobic Respiration


The second stage of aerobic respiration, Acetyl CoA formation and the Krebs cycle, takes place in the mitrochondrion

A mitochondrions inner membrane divides its interior into two fluid-filled spaces: the inner compartment (matrix) and the intermembrane space

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From Pyruvate to CO2


2 pyruvate from glycolysis are converted to 2 acetyl CoA and 2 CO2 AcetylCoA enters the Krebs cycle it takes two cycles of Krebs reactions to dismantle 2 acetylCoA At the end of the Krebs cycle, all carbon atoms that entered glycolysis have left the cell in CO2

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8 Steps of the Second Stage


1. An enzyme splits a pyruvate molecule into a twocarbon acetyl group and CO2 Coenzyme A binds the acetyl group (forming acetylCoA) NAD+ combines with released hydrogen ions and electrons, forming NADH

2. The Krebs cycle starts as one carbon atom is transferred from acetylCoA to oxaloacetate Citrate forms, and coenzyme A is regenerated
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8 Steps of the Second Stage


3. A carbon atom is removed and leaves the cell as CO2 NAD+ combines with H+ and electrons, forming NADH

4. Another carbon atom is removed and leaves the cell as CO2, and another NADH forms Pyruvates 3 carbon atoms have exited the cell, in CO2
5. 1 ATP forms by substrate-level phosphorylation
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8 Steps of the Second Stage


6. The coenzyme FAD combines with hydrogen ions and electrons, forming FADH2 7. NAD+ combines with H+ and electrons, forming NADH 8. The final steps of the Krebs cycle regenerate oxaloacetate

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Products of the Second Stage


Electrons and hydrogen ions are transferred to NAD+ and FAD, which are reduced to NADH and FADH2 ATP forms by substrate-level phosphorylation TOTAL: Breakdown of 2 pyruvate molecules yields 10 reduced coenzymes and 2 ATP

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7.5 Aerobic Respirations Big Energy Payoff

The third stage of aerobic respiration, electron transfer phosphorylation, occurs at the inner mitochondrial membrane
Many ATP are formed in electron transfer phosphorylation

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Energy Transfer
In electron transfer phosphorylation, coenzymes reduced in the first two stages deliver electrons and hydrogen ions to electron transfer chains in the inner mitochondrial membrane Electrons moving through the chains release energy which is used to move H+ from the matrix to the intermembrane space

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Hydrogen Ion Concentration


Hydrogen ions that accumulate in the intermembrane space form a gradient across the inner membrane

H+ ions follow the gradient back to the matrix through transport proteins (ATP synthases) that drive ATP synthesis
Oxygen combines with electrons and H+ at the end of the transfer chains, forming water
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Summing Up: The Energy Harvest


Overall, aerobic respiration typically yields 36 ATP for each glucose molecule 32 ATP typically form in the third stage, but yield varies Example: Typical yield of aerobic respiration in brain and skeletal muscle cells is 38 ATP, not 36

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7.6 Fermentation Pathways


Anaerobic fermentation pathways begin with glycolysis and finish in the cytoplasm alcoholic fermentation lactate fermentation A molecule other than oxygen accepts electrons at the end of these reactions

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Key Terms
alcoholic fermentation Anaerobic carbohydrate breakdown pathway that produces ATP and ethyl alcohol (ethanol) Used in wine and breads lactate fermentation Anaerobic carbohydrate breakdown pathway that produces ATP and lactate Used in cheeses and pickles
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Energy of Fermentation

Breakdown of one glucose molecule in either alcoholic or lactate fermentation yields only the 2 ATP that form in glycolysis reactions enough energy to sustain single-celled anaerobic species

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Lactate Fermentation in Muscles


Skeletal muscle has two types of fibers: red and white ATP is produced primarily by aerobic respiration in red muscle fibers, which sustain activities that require endurance

Lactate fermentation in white fibers supports activities that occur in short, intense bursts
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7.7 Alternative Energy Sources in the Body

Simple sugars from carbohydrate breakdown, glycerol and fatty acids from fat breakdown, and carbon backbones of amino acids from protein breakdown may enter aerobic respiration at various reaction steps.

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Glycogen
When energy demand is low, ATP concentration rises and liver and muscle store glycogen When glucose levels decline, the pancreas secretes glucagon, and liver cells convert glycogen to glucose

Glycogen makes up about 1% of an average adults total energy reserves


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Energy From Fats


When blood glucose gets too high, excess dietary carbohydrates are converted to fatty acids The body stores most fats as triglycerides, which have three fatty acid tails When blood glucose falls, triglycerides provide energy: glycerol is converted to an intermediate of glycolysis, and fatty acids are converted to acetylCoA
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Energy From Proteins


When you eat more protein than your body needs, the amino acids are broken down The amino (NH3+) group is removed, and becomes ammonia (NH3) The carbon backbone is split, and acetylCoA, pyruvate, or an intermediate of the Krebs cycle forms

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When Mitochondria Spin Their Wheels (revisited)


At least 83 proteins are directly involved in electron transfer phosphorylation in mitochondria Defects in any of the thousands of other proteins used by mitochondria (such as frataxin) may be involved in many illnesses such as diabetes, hypertension, Alzheimers, Parkinsons disease, and even aging

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