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Aerobic Respiration
This equation summarizes aerobic respiration: C6H12O6 (glucose) + 6 O2 6 CO2 + 6 H2O
Energy Transfer
Electrons and hydrogen ions are transferred to 2 NAD+, which are reduced to 2 NADH 4 ATP form by substrate-level phosphorylation substrate-level phosphorylation A reaction that transfers a phosphate group from a substrate directly to ADP, thus forming ATP
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5 Steps of Glycolysis
1. An enzyme transfers a phosphate group from ATP to glucose, forming glucose-6-phosphate 2. A phosphate group from a second ATP is transferred to glucose-6-phosphate The resulting unstable molecule splits into 2 threecarbon molecules of PGAL (phosphoglyceraldehyde) 2 ATP have been invested in the reactions (p. 111)
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5 Steps of Glycolysis
3. Enzymes attach a phosphate to the 2 PGAL, and transfer 2 electrons and 1 hydrogen ion from each PGAL to NAD+ 2 PGA (phosphoglycerate) and 2 NADH form
4. Enzymes transfer a phosphate group from each PGA to ADP 2 ATP have formed by substrate-level phosphorylation The original investment of 2 ATP has been recovered
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5 Steps of Glycolysis
5. Enzymes transfer a phosphate group from each of 2 intermediates to ADP 2 molecules of pyruvate form at this last step 2 more ATP have formed by substrate-level phosphorylation
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Products of Glycolysis
Glycolysis yields 2 NADH, 2 ATP (net), and 2 pyruvate for each glucose molecule Depending on the type of cell and environmental conditions, pyruvate may enter the second stage of aerobic respiration or may be used in other ways, such as in fermentation
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A mitochondrions inner membrane divides its interior into two fluid-filled spaces: the inner compartment (matrix) and the intermembrane space
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2. The Krebs cycle starts as one carbon atom is transferred from acetylCoA to oxaloacetate Citrate forms, and coenzyme A is regenerated
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4. Another carbon atom is removed and leaves the cell as CO2, and another NADH forms Pyruvates 3 carbon atoms have exited the cell, in CO2
5. 1 ATP forms by substrate-level phosphorylation
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The third stage of aerobic respiration, electron transfer phosphorylation, occurs at the inner mitochondrial membrane
Many ATP are formed in electron transfer phosphorylation
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Energy Transfer
In electron transfer phosphorylation, coenzymes reduced in the first two stages deliver electrons and hydrogen ions to electron transfer chains in the inner mitochondrial membrane Electrons moving through the chains release energy which is used to move H+ from the matrix to the intermembrane space
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H+ ions follow the gradient back to the matrix through transport proteins (ATP synthases) that drive ATP synthesis
Oxygen combines with electrons and H+ at the end of the transfer chains, forming water
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Key Terms
alcoholic fermentation Anaerobic carbohydrate breakdown pathway that produces ATP and ethyl alcohol (ethanol) Used in wine and breads lactate fermentation Anaerobic carbohydrate breakdown pathway that produces ATP and lactate Used in cheeses and pickles
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Energy of Fermentation
Breakdown of one glucose molecule in either alcoholic or lactate fermentation yields only the 2 ATP that form in glycolysis reactions enough energy to sustain single-celled anaerobic species
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Lactate fermentation in white fibers supports activities that occur in short, intense bursts
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Simple sugars from carbohydrate breakdown, glycerol and fatty acids from fat breakdown, and carbon backbones of amino acids from protein breakdown may enter aerobic respiration at various reaction steps.
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Glycogen
When energy demand is low, ATP concentration rises and liver and muscle store glycogen When glucose levels decline, the pancreas secretes glucagon, and liver cells convert glycogen to glucose
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