Fundamentals

of
Electrical Machines
dcmotor 3
An electric motor is an electromechanical device that converts electrical energy into
mechanical energy.
The reverse process, producing electrical energy from mechanical energy, is done by
generators such as an alternator or a dynamo ; some electric motors can also be used as
generators, for example, a traction motor on a vehicle may perform both tasks.

Electric motors and generators are commonly referred to as electric machines.
Electrical
Energy
Mechanical
Energy
DC Motor
In any electric motor, operation is based on simple electromagnetism.
A current-carrying conductor is placed in an external magnetic field, it will experience a
force proportional to the current in the conductor, and to the strength of the external
magnetic field.











The size of the force, which determines how fast the motor spins, depends on :
1. the amount of current in the wire
2. the length of the wire
3. the strength of the magnetic field
L
B
I
Force
North pole
South pole
Force = (current) x (wire length) x (magnetic field)
South pole
first finger

second
finger

thumb
Each digit of your hand must be at right
angles to both of the other two
current

field

motion

Flemings Left Hand Rule
If the current is reversed, the direction of
motion will change
The Motor Effect
L
B
North pole
Force
I
field is clockwise
Current into page
field is anticlockwise
Current out of page
Using the following convention, we can show why Flemings left hand rule works
The Motor Effect
Force
I
B
F
North pole
South pole
Each digit of your hand must be at right
angles to both of the other two
first finger

second
finger

thumb
current

field

motion

If the current is reversed, the direction of
motion will change
Flemings Left Hand Rule
field is clockwise
Current into page Current out of page
Using the following convention, we can show why Flemings left hand rule works
The Motor Effect
The force on a conductor can be increased by forming a single turn coil
Blue spot represents
the central pivot
point

North Pole
South Pole
The Motor Effect
The force on a conductor can be increased by forming a single turn coil
Top conductor
experiences force to
left

Bottom conductor
experiences force to
right

North Pole
South Pole
Force
Force
Combined action causes rotation

The Motor Effect
Forces add up to a rotational force called Torque (T) in Newtons per metre
T
T
North Pole
South Pole
F
R
Torque produced
T = 2 n F r
n = number of coil turns
F = force on single conductor
r = radius of coil

If the motion is reversed, the polarity
of EMF will change and the current will
be reversed
I
first
finger

second
finger

thumb
Each digit of your hand must be at right
angles to both of the other two
current

field

motion

Flemings Right Hand Rule
L
e
B
v
+
-
North pole
South pole
Velocity
The Generating Effect
first
finger

second
finger

thumb
Each digit of your hand must be at right
angles to both of the other two
current

field

motion

If the motion is reversed, the polarity
of EMF will change and the current will
be reversed
Flemings Right Hand Rule
L
e
B
v
I
-
+
South pole
North pole
Velocity
The Generating Effect
An EMF can be generated in a rotational motion by forming a coil
EMF generated in both sides of the coil add up

North Pole
South Pole
Motion
Motion
The Generating Effect
Blue spot represents
the central pivot
point

e = B*L *V [Volts]
B = Density of the magnetic flux in Teslas
v = velocity in metres per second
L = Length of conductor in field in metres
The direction of the force, which determines which
direction the motor spins, depends on:

1. the direction of the current in the wire
2. the direction of the magnetic field
Thus, it is possible to increase the size of the force and thus the speed at which the
motor turns by:
1. Increasing the number of current carrying wires (number of loops in the rotor)
2. Increasing the current in the rotor by using a bigger battery
3. Increasing the current in the rotor by using wire with less resistance
4. Increasing the size of the magnetic field by using additional and/or stronger
ceramic magnets
Basic DC Motor Controlling Parameter
Basic DC Motor Controlling Parameter
Every DC motor has three basic parts
1. Stator (Field magnet or field winding)
2. Rotor (Armature, Commutator and Brushes )
3. Shaft
Stator
The stator is the stationary part of the motor -- this includes the motor casing, as
well as two or more permanent magnet pole pieces. It is generally known as field
magnet or winding.
Rotor
The rotor (together with the axle and attached commutator) rotate with respect to the stator.
The rotor consists of windings (generally on a core), the windings being electrically
connected to the commutator.
Electrically, it is generally known as Armature.
Armature winding
There are two type of armature winding
1. lap winding
2. wave winding
Lap Winding:
A This type of winding is used in dc generators designed for high-
current applications. The windings are connected to provide several parallel paths
for current in the armature. For this reason, lap-wound armatures used in dc
generators require several pairs of poles and brushes.

Commutator Segments
Commutator
Lap winding
Wave Winding:
This type of winding is used in dc generators employed in high-voltage
applications. Notice that the two ends of each coil are connected to commutator
segments separated by the distance between poles.












This configuration allows the series addition of the voltages in all the windings
between brushes. This type of winding only requires one pair of brushes. In
practice, a practical generator may have several pairs to improve commutation
Commutator Segments
Commutator
Pole Position
Armature
Armature winding
Commutator And Brushes
To keep the torque on a DC motor from reversing every time the coil moves through the
plane perpendicular to the magnetic field, a split-ring device called a commutator is used to
reverse the current at that point.
















The electrical contacts to the rotating ring are called "brushes" since copper brush contacts
were used in early motors. Modern motors normally use spring-loaded carbon contacts, but
the historical name for the contacts has persisted.
1. Induced EMF, E
a
= K
a
ue
m
(volts)

2. Developed Torque, T
dev
= K
a
uI
a
(Newton-meter or Nm)
where e
m
is the speed of the armature in rad/sec., u is the flux per pole in
Weber (Wb)
I
a
is the

Armature current
K
a
is the machine constant

Primer Mover
(turbine)
DC Generator
+
-
Ea
e
m
L
o
a
d

I
a

V
L

+
-
T
pm
T
dev
Here, E
a
is Generated voltage
V
L
is Load voltage
T
pm
is the Torque generated by Prime Mover
T
dev
is the opposing generator torque

DC Motor
Mechanical Load
+
-
Ea
e
m
I
a

V
t

+
-
T
load
T
dev
Here, E
a
is Back EMF
V
T
is Applied voltage
T
dev
is the Torque developed by DC Motor
T
load
is the opposing load torque

Neglecting Losses,
Input mechanical power to dc generator
= T
dev
e
m
= K
a
uI
a
e
m
= E
a
I
a
= Output electric power to load
Input electrical power to dc motor
= E
a
I
a
=

K
a
u e
m
I
a
= T
dev
e
m
= Output mechanical power to load
1. In every generator there is a motor (T
dev
opposes T
pm
)
2. In every motor there is a generator (E
a
opposes V
T
)


Type of DC Motor
Permanent Magnets
Provides a continuous and constant magnetic field by the use of permanently
magnetized materials (typically on only the smallest motors).
Separate windings and power supply provide the magnetic field for the motor
Field winding
Armatures Winding
In armature circuit, According to KVL Law,
Ea = Vt - Ia*Ra;
and Ea=K*u*Wm
In Field circuit, According to KVL Law,
Vf = If *Rf


In armature circuit, according to KVL Rule
Ka**Wm = Vt - Ia*Ra

Wm =
Vt Ia* Ra
Ka*
Ka*
Here we know that
Ta Ia*
so,
Wm =
Vt Ra
Ka*
Ka*()
Ta
2
e
m
T
By Controlling Terminal Voltage V
t
and keeping I
f
or u constant at rated value.
This method of speed control is applicable for speeds below rated or base speed.
e
m
V
T

T
1
T
2
T
3

T
1
<T
2
< T
3
T
K
R
K
V
a
a
a
t
m
2
) ( u u
e =
V
1
<V
2
<V
3
V
1
V
2
V
3
By Controlling(reducing) Field Current I
f
or u and keeping V
t
at rated value.
This method of speed control is applicable for speeds above rated speed.
e
m
T
1

T
2

T
3

T
1
<T
2
< T
3
u
T
K
R
K
V
a
a
a
t
m
2
) ( u u
e =
e
1

e
1
> e
2
> e
3
e
2
e
3
This is connected in parallel with the motor armature to provide the excitation.
1. The field winding and armature winding are connected in series.
2. The field winding carries the same current as the armature winding.
Reversing the polarity of both the stator and the rotor cancel out. Thus the motor
will always rotate the same direction regardless of the voltage polarity.
A series wound motor is also called a universal motor. It is universal in the sense
that it will run equally well using either an ac or a dc voltage source.
The torque developed in the rotor is:

Tdev = K ** Ia
Assuming that the flux is directly proportional to field current (i.e. no magnetic
saturation),
If
Since in a series motor, If = Ia
= Kf Ia

where Kf is a constant that depends on the number of turns in the field winding,
the geometry of the magnetic circuit and the B-H characteristics of iron.

Applying KVL to the equivalent circuit,

Vt= Rf Ia + Ra Ia + Eb
But induced voltage can be expressed as Eb = K ** Wm
= K (Kf Ia) Wm= K Ia Wm
Therefore, the torque developed in the rotor can be expressed as:
Tdev = K * (Ia)
2
if the terminal voltage VT is kept constant, the speed is almost inversely
proportional to the square root of the torque . A high torque is obtained at low
speed and a low torque is obtained at high speed.
If both series and shunt field windings are used, the motor is said to be
compounded. In a compound machine, the series field winding is connected in
series with the armature, and the shunt field winding is connected in parallel. Two
types of arrangements are possible in compound motors:
Cumulative compounding - If the magnetic fluxes produced by both series and
shunt field windings are in the same direction (i.e., additive), the machine is called
cumulative compound.
Differential compounding - If the two fluxes are in opposition, the machine is
differential compound.
The efficiency of the DC motor can be calculated as:



This equation can also be expressed in terms of power losses in the motor:


Learning Outcomes
At the end of the lecture, student should to:
Understand the principle and the nature of 3 phase induction machines.

Perform an analysis on induction machines which is the most rugged and the
most widely used machine in industry.
AC MOTORS
Contents
Overview of Three-Phase Induction Motor
Construction
Principle of Operation
Equivalent Circuit
Power Flow, Losses and Efficiency
Torque-Speed Characteristics
Speed Control
Overview of Single-Phase Induction Motor
AC MOTORS
Overview of Three-Phase Induction Motor
Induction motors are used worldwide in many residential, commercial,
industrial, and utility applications.
Induction Motors transform electrical energy into mechanical energy.
It can be part of a pump or fan, or connected to some other form of
mechanical equipment such as a winder, conveyor, or mixer.
Three Phase Induction Motor
2.The magnitude of this induced e.m.f. will be directly proportional to the
rate of change of the flux.

According to the Faraday
|Emf|= -d/dt







It is a electromechanical device Which convert electrical energy to mechanical
energy and works on the Faraday principal of induction.

According to the faraday laws of induction,
1. whenever we make changes in the flux link to any coil , there would be a
induced e.m.f. In the coil and there would be a induced current in it, if it is in
closed loop.
Three-phase induction motors are the most common and frequently encountered
machines in industry
1. simple design, rugged, low-price, easy maintenance
2. wide range of power ratings: fractional horsepower to 10 MW
3. run essentially as constant speed from no-load to full load
4. Its speed depends on the frequency of the power source
a. not easy to have variable speed control
b. requires a variable-frequency power-electronic drive for optimal speed
control
3 Phase Induction Motor
Construction
Construction
An induction motor has two main parts
1. A stationary stator
a. consisting of a steel frame that supports a hollow, cylindrical core
b. core, constructed from stacked laminations (why?), having a number
of evenly spaced slots, providing the space for the stator winding
composed of punched laminations, stacked to create a series of rotor slots, providing
space for the rotor winding
one of two types of rotor windings
conventional 3-phase windings made of insulated wire (wound-rotor) similar to the
winding on the stator
aluminum bus bars shorted together at the ends by two aluminum rings, forming a
squirrel-cage shaped circuit (squirrel-cage)



Rotor
/rotor winding
Short circuits all
rotor bars.
Wound rotor
Notice the slip rings
Two basic design types depending on the rotor design
wound-rotor:
complete set of three-phase windings exactly as the stator. Usually Y-connected, the
ends of the three rotor wires are connected to 3 slip rings on the rotor shaft. In this
way, the rotor circuit is accessible.
Two basic design types depending on the rotor design
squirrel-cage:
conducting bars laid into slots and shorted at both ends by shorting rings.
Squirrel cage rotor
Simple, low cost, robust, low maintenance
Cutaway in a
typical
wound-rotor
IM. Notice
the brushes
and the slip
rings
Brushes
Slip rings
1. Balanced three phase windings, i.e. mechanically displaced 120 degrees form
each other, fed by balanced three phase source
2. A rotating magnetic field with constant magnitude is produced, rotating with a
speed



120
e
sync
f
n rpm
P
=
Where f
e
is the supply frequency and
P is the no. of poles and n
sync
is called
the synchronous speed in rpm (revolutions per
minute)
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
net a b c
B t B t B t B t = + +
sin( ) 0 sin( 120 ) 120 sin( 240) 240
M M M
B t B t B t e e e = Z + Z + Z
sin( )
3
[0.5 sin( 120 )] [ sin( 120 )]
2
3
[0.5 sin( 240 )] [ sin( 240 )]
2
M
M M
M M
B t
B t B t
B t B t
e
e e
e e
=

+
x
x y
x y
1. This rotating magnetic field cuts the rotor windings and produces an induced
voltage in the rotor windings
2. Due to the fact that the rotor windings are short circuited, for both squirrel
cage and wound-rotor, and induced current flows in the rotor windings
3. The rotor current produces another magnetic field
4. A torque is produced as a result of the interaction of those two magnetic
fields

Where t
ind
is the induced torque and B
R
and B
S
are the magnetic flux densities
of the rotor and the stator respectively
ind R s
kB B t =
At what speed will the IM run?
Can the IM run at the synchronous speed, why?
If rotor runs at the synchronous speed, which is the same speed of the
rotating magnetic field, then the rotor will appear stationary to the
rotating magnetic field and the rotating magnetic field will not cut the
rotor. So, no induced current will flow in the rotor and no rotor magnetic
flux will be produced so no torque is generated and the rotor speed will
fall below the synchronous speed
When the speed falls, the rotating magnetic field will cut the rotor
windings and a torque is produced
So, the IM will always run at a speed lower than the synchronous speed
The difference between the motor speed and the synchronous speed is called the
Slip



Where n
slip
= slip speed
n
sync
= speed of the magnetic field
n
m
= mechanical shaft speed of the motor
slip sync m
n n n =

sync m
sync
n n
s
n

=
Where s is the slip
Notice that : if the rotor runs at synchronous speed
s = 0
if the rotor is stationary
s = 1
Slip may be expressed as a percentage by multiplying the above eq. by 100,
notice that the slip is a ratio and doesnt have units
Frequency
The frequency of the voltage induced in the rotor is given by



Where f
r
= the rotor frequency (Hz)
P = number of stator poles
n = slip speed (rpm)
120
r
P n
f

=
( )
120
120
s m
r
s
e
P n n
f
P sn
sf

=

= =


What would be the frequency of the rotors induced voltage at any speed n
m
?
r e
f s f =
1. When the rotor is blocked (s=1) , the frequency of the induced voltage is equal
to the supply frequency.
2. On the other hand, if the rotor runs at synchronous speed (s = 0), the frequency
will be zero
Torque
1. While the input to the induction motor is electrical power, its output is
mechanical power and for that we should know some terms and quantities
related to mechanical power
2. Any mechanical load applied to the motor shaft will introduce a Torque on the
motor shaft. This torque is related to the motor output power and the rotor
speed

and

.
out
load
m
P
N m t
e
=
2
/
60
m
m
n
rad s
t
e =
Maximum torque
Here we know that,





Maximum torque occurs when the power transferred to R
2
/s is maximum.



This condition occurs when R
2
/s equals the magnitude of the impedance R
TH

+ j (X
TH
+ X
2
)
max
2 2
2
2
( )
TH TH
T
R
R X X
s
= + +
max
2
2 2
2
( )
T
TH TH
R
s
R X X
=
+ +
2
2
2
2
2
2
3
1
( )
TH
ind
s
TH TH
R
V
s
R
R X X
s
t
e
| |
|
\ .
=
| |
+ + +
|
\ .
Rotor resistance can be increased by inserting external resistance in the rotor of a
wound-rotor induction motor.
The
value of the maximum torque remains unaffected
but
the speed at which it occurs can be controlled.
1. The induced torque is zero at synchronous speed. Discussed earlier.
2. The curve is nearly linear between no-load and full load. In this range, the rotor
resistance is much greater than the reactance, so the rotor current, torque increase
linearly with the slip.
3. There is a maximum possible torque that cant be exceeded. This torque is called
pullout torque and is 2 to 3 times the rated full-load torque
4. The starting torque of the motor is slightly higher than its full-load torque, so the
motor will start carrying any load it can supply at full load.
5. The torque of the motor for a given slip varies as the square of the applied voltage.
6. If the rotor is driven faster than synchronous speed it will run as a generator,
converting mechanical power to electric power.

Important to note
Effect of rotor resistance on torque-speed characteristic
1. Another unit used to measure mechanical power is the horse power
2. It is used to refer to the mechanical output power of the motor
3. Since we, as an electrical engineers, deal with watts as a unit to measure
electrical power, there is a relation between horse power and watts
746 hp watts =
Both IM and transformer works on the principle of induced voltage
1. Transformer: voltage applied to the primary windings produce an
induced voltage in the secondary windings
2. Induction motor: voltage applied to the stator windings produce an
induced voltage in the rotor windings
3. The difference is that, in the case of the induction motor, the secondary
windings can move
4. Due to the rotation of the rotor (the secondary winding of the IM), the
induced voltage in it does not have the same frequency of the stator (the
primary) voltage
Equivalent Circuit
The induction motor is similar to the transformer with the exception that its
secondary windings are free to rotate






As we noticed in the transformer, it is easier if we can combine these two
circuits in one circuit but there are some difficulties
As we noticed in the transformer, it is easier if we can combine these two circuits
in one circuit but there are some difficulties
When the rotor is locked (or blocked), i.e. s =1, the largest voltage and rotor
frequency are induced in the rotor, Why?

On the other side, if the rotor rotates at synchronous speed, i.e. s = 0, the induced
voltage and frequency in the rotor will be equal to zero, Why?
Where E
R0
is the largest value of the rotors induced voltage obtained at s = 1
( locked rotor)
0 R R
E sE =
The same is true for the frequency, i.e.

It is known that


So, as the frequency of the induced voltage in the rotor changes, the
reactance of the rotor circuit also changes
Where X
r0
is the rotor reactance at the supply
frequency (at blocked rotor)
r e
f s f =
2 X L f L e t = =
0
2
2
r r r r r
e r
r
X L f L
sf L
sX
e t
t
= =
=
=
Then, we can draw the rotor equivalent circuit as follows





Where E
R
is the induced voltage in the rotor and R
R
is the rotor resistance
Now we can calculate the rotor current as




Dividing both the numerator and denominator by s so nothing changes we get



Where E
R0
is the induced voltage and X
R0
is the rotor reactance at blocked
rotor condition (s = 1)
0
0
( )
( )
R
R
R R
R
R R
E
I
R jX
sE
R jsX
=
+
=
+
0
0
( )
R
R
R
R
E
I
R
jX
s
=
+
Now we can have the rotor equivalent circuit
Now as we managed to solve the induced voltage and different frequency problems, we
can combine the stator and rotor circuits in one equivalent circuit
Where
2
2 0
2
2
2
1 0
eff R
eff R
R
eff
eff R
S
eff
R
X a X
R a R
I
I
a
E a E
N
a
N
=
=
=
=
=
Power losses in Induction machines
1. Copper losses
Copper loss in the stator (P
SCL
) = I
1
2
R
1
Copper loss in the rotor (P
RCL
) = I
2
2
R
2

2. Core loss (P
core
)
3. Mechanical power loss due to friction and windage
4. How this power flow in the motor?
1. The purpose of the DC test is to determine R
1
. A variable DC voltage source
is connected between two stator terminals.
2. The DC source is adjusted to provide approximately rated stator current,
and the resistance between the two stator leads is determined from the
voltmeter and ammeter readings.
3. then


4. If the stator is Y-connected, the per phase stator resistance is


DC
DC
DC
V
R
I
=
1
2
DC
R
R =
1
3
2
DC
R R =
4. If the stator is delta-connected, the per phase stator resistance is
1
3
2
DC
R R =
1. The motor is allowed to spin freely
2. The only load on the motor is the friction and windage losses, so all P
conv
is
consumed by mechanical losses
3. The slip is very small
No-load test
4. At this small slip


The equivalent circuit reduces to
2 2
2 2
(1 ) R (1 )
&
R s s
R X
s s

5. Combining R
c
& R
F+W
we get
6. At the no-load conditions, the input power measured by meters must equal
the losses in the motor.
7. The P
RCL
is negligible because I
2
is extremely small because R
2
(1-s)/s is
very large.
8. The input power equals



Where

&
2
1 1
3
in SCL core F W
rot
P P P P
I R P
= + +
= +
& rot core F W
P P P = +
No-load test
9. The equivalent input impedance is thus approximately



If X
1
can be found, in some other fashion, the magnetizing impedance X
M
will be
known


1
1,
eq M
nl
V
Z X X
I
|
= ~ +
Blocked-rotor test
1. In this test, the rotor is locked or blocked so that it cannot move, a voltage is
applied to the motor, and the resulting voltage, current and power are measured.
2. The AC voltage applied to the stator is adjusted so that the current flow is
approximately full-load value.
3. The locked-rotor power factor can be found as


4. The magnitude of the total impedance
cos
3
in
l l
P
PF
V I
u = =
LR
V
Z
I
|
=
Blocked-rotor test





Where X
1
and X
2
are the stator and rotor reactance at the test frequency
respectively
'
cos sin
LR LR LR
LR LR
Z R jX
Z j Z u u
= +
= +
1 2
' ' '
1 2
LR
LR
R R R
X X X
= +
= +
2 1 LR
R R R =
'
1 2
rated
LR LR
test
f
X X X X
f
= = +
Blocked-rotor test
X
1
and X
2
as function of X
LR
Rotor Design X
1
X
2
Wound rotor 0.5 X
LR
0.5 X
LR
Design A 0.5 X
LR
0.5 X
LR
Design B 0.4 X
LR
0.6 X
LR
Design C 0.3 X
LR
0.7 X
LR
Design D 0.5 X
LR
0.5 X
LR
1. 3-phase induction motors are simple, rugged, low cost, and easy to maintain.
2. They run at essentially constant speed from zero-to-full load. Therefore, they
are the motors most frequently encountered in industry.
3. They are Lightweight (20% to 40% lighter than equivalent DC motor) and
low maintenance is required compare to the DC motor.


1. The power control relatively complex and more expensive
2. Induction Motor Requires High Starting Torque(Generally 180% of full
Rated torque.
3. Induction Motor also require 6-10 times more starting current than full
rated current.

1. By Changing the no of poles
2. By Changing the Stator Voltage
3. By Changing the Rotor Resistance
4. By Changing Frequency
5. By Changing Slip
Motor Starting Solutions
1. Proper Method of starting motors can result in reduced downtime & increased
productivity .
2. Hence we need to know the trade-offs of various starting methods
There are 3 Major Methods of starting AC Motors are
1. Full Voltage
a. Direct on line starter
b. Reversible Direct on line starter
2. Electromechanical Reduced Voltage
a. Auto transformer
b. Star Delta
3. Solid State Controller.
1. It is most widely used for its simplicity.
2. In this mode of starting full voltage is applied
to the induction motor.

3. Here we know that,





Where T st = Starting torque of the motor which
is 180 % of the rate torque.
4. High torque can cause damage to the
mechanical system.


2
2
2
2
2
2
3
1
( )
TH
ind
s
TH TH
R
V
s
R
R X X
s
t
e
| |
|
\ .
=
| |
+ + +
|
\ .
5. Starting Torque of 180% causes excessive wear
and tear to mechanical parts (like Chains, Belts,
Gears, Couplings
L
2
L
1
L
3
K1.2

K1.3

K1.4

K1.1

1
1

2

3

4

5

TOL

TOL

Stop

C/B


Start



K1/4

K1/4

M
3~
Breakdown Torque
180%
100%
100% 0
%

o
f

F
u
l
l


L
o
a
d

T
o
r
q
u
e

% of Full Speed
600%
100%
100%
0
%

o
f

F
u
l
l


L
o
a
d

C
u
r
r
e
n
t

% of Full Speed
5. We know that ,
Required AC Power = I*V*cos
6. To fulfill the requirement of high starting torque, induction motor requires more
power or we can say starting current in increase by 6-10 times. High current
can cause problems in the electrical system. It also results in decreased system
capacity.

1. Minimize mechanical damage resulting from full voltage starting of
AC induction motors
2. Limit line disturbances from in-rush currents
3. Power supplier / captive generator requirements
4. Internal distribution limitations
5. Soft starting (process requirement)
Lowering voltage reduces the torque as well as starting current.
%Torque o Voltage

%Current o Voltage

And
1. A 50% reduction in voltage results in a 75% reduction in torque.
180%
100%
Percentage of Full Speed
100% 0
Full Voltage
Torque
Reduced Voltage Torque
600
%
100
%
10 seconds 0
P
e
r
c
e
n
t
a
g
e


o
f

F
u
l
l

L
o
a
d



C
u
r
r
e
n
t

Acceleration Time in Seconds
40 seconds
2. A 50% lower starting voltage means 50% lower starting current. Starting time is
longer.
Methods of Reduced Voltage Starting
1. Star-Delta
2. Autotransformer
3. Part winding
Star-Delta starter
1. In this Case Motor must have six leads brought out, so that the motor can
be connected in two separate configurations.

2. In this method of starting, First we drive the Motor in Drive configuration
and After 6-10 sec it switch to delta configuration Which Drive the Motor.

3. Using this method Starting , The Starting current Reduce to 198% of
motor rated current and 33% of normal starting torque.


R
R
R
R
R
R
Star configuration Delta Configuration
In Star configuration
Requ = 2R
IStar=VL/Requ



IStar= VL/2R
In Delta configuration
Requ = 2R/3
Idelta= VL/Requ



Idelta= 3VL/2R
Istar = (1/3)Idelta
A Compare Between Star And Delta Configuration
Single line diagram of Star-Delta starter
Draw yourself
Autotransformer Starter
1. Three coil starting transformer with taps at 50%, 65% and 80%
2. Starting current : 150 - 480% of motor rated current
3. 25 - 64% of normal starting torque

Auto-transformers
V
IN
x I
IN
= V
OUT
x I
OUT
V
In
V Out

5. Transformer has multiple taps. More flexible than Star-Delta or Part-Winding
because more than one torque level can be achieved.

4.Transformer has multiple taps. More flexible than Star-Delta or Part-Winding
because more than one torque level can be achieved.
415 V
240 V
312 V
384 V
F.V. Tap 1 Tap 2 Tap 3
64, 42, 25%
Starting
Current/Torque
6. Transformer has multiple taps. More flexible than Star-Delta or Part-Winding
because more than one torque level can be achieved.
1. Adjustable Taps
2. Large, Moderately Expensive


1. High inertia flywheel type equipment
2. Long start times
3. Retrofits
4. When Y-D does not give enough starting torque
1. It is a solid state device which used to convert the amount of power Applied to
the load without wastage of energy in which we control the Frequency, the speed
of motor is also controlled.
2. Basically it is use for motion controlling in industrial environment.

Type of Drives
1. AC Drives
2. DC Drives
3. Stepper Drives
4. Servo Drives
Type of AC Drives
1. Variable Frequency Drives (V/Hz Drive)
2. Sensor less Vector Drives
4. Flux Vector Drives
Advantages of Drives
1. It convert single phase i/p supply to variable three phase o/p supply or three
phase i/p supply to variable three phase o/p supply.
2. Smooth Start and Smooth Stop.
3. Constant Power Factor(Due to this constant power factor we save energy and
save in electric bills.) thus It is a energy saving device.
4. Flexibility in programming and reprogramming(Microprocessor based.)
5. Networking capability is also available in the Drive so that we may
communicate Drive to PC and PLC.


6. Synchronization is also possible.
7. It can perform Bidirectional operation either reverse or forward
8. Easy in operation , reduces the no of hardware and user-friendly.
Block Diagram of Drives
Current and voltage
feedback signal
Speed
Reference
1. First, the Converter (usually a diode rectifier) converts three phase AC power to
DC power.
2. Next, the DC Bus stores and filters the DC power in a large bank of capacitors.
3. Last, the Inverter (usually a set of six IGBTs) switches or inverts the DC power
in a Pulse Width Modulated (PWM) AC waveform to the motor.

Variable Frequency Drive
Variable Frequency Drive
Variable Frequency Drive
1. We know that
V=4.44 Kw*F**T
Where
V= Applied voltage
F= Supply Frequency
T= Developed Torque
For T= Constant Torque
(V/F)=4.44*Kw**T



All are constant
2. Here we can say, Against the constant value of torque, the Ratio between the
in applied Voltage and the change in supplied frequency always remains
constant .
3. This is called Drive Law.
Block Diagram of Variable Frequency Drive
Speed Reference
Current Feedback
Gate Signal
V magnitude
V/Hz Control
(Hz)
Features Of Variable Frequency Drive
1. The VFD is energy saving device.
2. The Variable Frequency Drive is constant power Factor drive in which we
control the speed of the motor by producing variation in the supplied
frequency instead of terminal voltage.
3. The VFD can run 10 to 20% higher in speed and make up for lost capacity
in a flow-and-demand type of system.
4. It is hardware and software both and can be programmed by using certain
parameters.
5. As a Result we can produce flexibility in control techniques such as digital
as well as analog, can be produced.





Sensor less Vector Drive
Vmag.
Vang.
Gate Signal
AC
motor
Flux Vector Drive
Gate Signal
Vmag.
Vang.
AC
motor
How Energy Can Be Using PWM Techniques ????..........
PWM, or Pulse Width Modulation, refers to the method of applying a square wave
signal to the Load that will vary its speed by changing the signal duty cycle:

Toff (Energy is saved)





Ton (Energy is elapsed)

Where F = 1/T is the frequency in (Hz).
( T ON / TOF ) is the Duty Cycle in (%).
Variable Frequency Drive( Wiring)
Single phase supply i/p pins Three phase supply o/p pins
Control pins
Stop button
Forward/reverse
Resistance pins
(for external use)
Port
start
Programming Parameter of VFD
First Shown when Drive is power on
Display Group(View only)
Basic Program Group
Terminal Block Group
Communication Group
Advance Program Group
List of basic parameter to set up Drive for VFD
Set to the Value on the motor nameplate rated Volts.
Set to the Value on the motor nameplate rated Frequency.
Set the maximum allowable motor current.
[Motor Overload Current]


Sets the lowest frequency that the drive will output continuously.
[Minimum Frequency]


Sets the Highest frequency that the drive will output continuously.
[Maximum Frequency]

Sets the source that will be used to start
the drive.
0= keypad
1=3 wire
2=2wire
3=2wire level sensor
4=2 wire high speed
5=communication port
6=momentum forward/ reverse
List of basic parameter to set up Drive for VFD
0 = Drive Potentiometer
1 = Internal Frequency
2 = 0-10V input
3 = 4-20mA input
4 = Preset Frequency
5 = Communication Port
6 = Step Logic
7 = Analog In Multispeed
List of basic parameter to set up Drive for VFD
Resets all drive parameters to factory defaults.

Sets the Voltage Class of 600V Drive

Enables/Disables the motor overload
Retention function
0 = Idle State
1 = Reset Defaults
2 = Low Voltage (480V)
3 = High Voltage (600V)
0 = Disabled
1= Enabled
1 2 3 4 5 6
11 12 13 14 15 16
2 Wire sinking control wiring using internal supply
Stop Pin
Forward Pin
Reverse Pin
Digital Common
Parameter need to be programmed

P036[start source]= 2,3 or 4
Note: if run forward and reverse inputs are closed at the same time, an undetermined
state can occur.
1 2 3 4 5 6
11 12 13 14 15 16
Stop Pin
Forward Pin
Digital Common
Parameter need to be programmed

P036[start source]= 2,3 or 4
2 Wire sinking control wiring Non Reversing
1 2 3 4 5 6
11 12 13 14 15 16
2 Wire sourcing control wiring Forward/Reversing-External supply
Stop Pin
Forward Pin
Digital Common Reverse Pin
Parameter need to be programmed
P036[start source]= 2,3 or 4

Note: if run forward and reverse inputs are closed at the same time, an undetermined
state can occur. Each Digital Input draws 6mamp.
2 Wire sourcing control wiring Forward/Reversing-Internal supply
1 2 3 4 5 6
11 12 13 14 15 16
Stop Pin
Forward Pin
Reverse Pin
+24v Internal DC Supply
Note: if run forward and reverse inputs are closed at the same time, an undetermined
state can occur. Each Digital Input draws 6mamp.
Parameter need to be programmed
P036[start source]= 2,3 or 4
3 Wire Sinking control wiring Non Reversing-Internal supply
1 2 3 4 5 6
11 12 13 14 15 16
Digital common
+24v Internal DC Supply
Forward Pin
Stop Pin
Parameter need to be programmed
P036[start source]= 2,3 or 4
1 2 3 4 5 6
11 12 13 14 15 16
Reverse pin
+24v Internal DC Supply
3 Wire Sinking control wiring Non Reversing-Internal supply
Stop Pin
Forward Pin
Digital common
Parameter need to be programmed
P036[start source]= 1
1 2 3 4 5 6
11 12 13 14 15 16
Reverse pin
+24v Internal DC Supply
3 Wire sourcing control wiring Non Reversing-External supply
Forward pin
Stop pin
P038 [Start Source] = 1
Parameter need to be programmed
1 2 3 4 5 6
11 12 13 14 15 16
Reverse pin
+24v Internal DC Supply
Forward pin
Stop pin
Parameter need to be programmed
P038 [Start Source] = 1
1 2 3 4 5 6
11 12 13 14 15 16
+24v Internal DC Supply
+/- 10 volts
0-10 Volt In
Analog common
Changes to be made in the parameter
P038 [Speed Reference]= 2 For0-10 volt

A123[10 volt bipolar enbl. ] = 1Bi- Polar in

+/- 10 Volt Speed Command
4- 20 mamp current Speed Command
1 2 3 4 5 6
11 12 13 14 15 16
+24v Internal DC Supply
4-20 mamp. current
Analog common
4-20 mamp. Current In
Changes to be made in the parameter
P038[Speed Reference]= 34-20 mamp.
1. All motors run at same speed
2. Drive size to be sum of all HP
3. No limit to number of motors on one drive
4. Motors do not need to be same HP rating
5. All OL Relays to be tied together in series
6. Drive would run in V/Hz mode
7. Motor OL can be disabled in drive
Variable Frequency Drive
Thank you