TOPIC 3

MOLECULES OF LIFE

1
 WATER
• Structure of a water
molecule

– A water molecule
consist of an oxygen
atom and two
hydrogen atoms

– The two hydrogen

atoms are combined
with the oxygen atom
by sharing of electrons 2
• The three atoms
form a triangle,
not a straight line

3
4
5
• The water molecule
is electrically
neutral, but there is
a net negative
charge on the
oxygen atom and a
net positive charge
on both hydrogen
atoms.

6
• A molecule carrying such an unequal
distribution of electrical charge is called a
polar molecule.

7
• The positively
charged hydrogen
atoms of one water
molecule are
attracted to the
negatively charged
oxygen atoms of
nearby water
molecules by
forces called
hydrogen bonds.
8
• Hydrogen bonds are weaker than covalent
bonds.

• But there are strong enough to hold water

molecules together.

9
• Because of their hydrogen bonds,
water molecules are attracted to
charged particles or charged
surfaces.

• In fact, hydrogen bonds largely

account for the unique properties
of water.

10
Properties of water as vital
constituent of life

11
 Water as a universal solvent

• powerful solvent for polar substances.

• These include ionic substances like

sodium chloride (Na+ and Cl-), and also
organic molecules with ionized groups
(such as the carboxyl group –COO- , and
amino group –NH3+).
12
• These cations (negatively charged ions)
and anions (positively charged ions)
become surrounded by a shell of
orientated water molecules.

13
• Soluble organic molecules like sugars
dissolve in water due to the formation of
hydrogen bonds between the water
molecules and the slightly charged
hydroxyl (-OH) groups in these organic
molecules.

• Once dissolve, the molecules of a

substance are free to move around.

14
• This makes them more reactive chemically
than when they form part of an undissolve
solid.

15
• At the same time, non-polar substances
are repelled by water, as in the case of oil
on the surface of water. Non-polar
substances are hydrophobic.

16
 Viscosity of water
• It has a low viscosity

• This unique property makes it suitable

medium of transportation in living
organisms.

17
 Specific heat capacity
• A lot of energy is required to raise the
temperature of water.

• This is because, much energy is needed

to break the hydrogen bonds that restrict
the movement of water molecules.

18
• This property of water is known as its specific
heat capacity.

• The specific heat capacity of water is the highest

of any known substance.

• Consequently, aquatic environments like stream

and rivers, ponds, lakes and seas are all very
slow to change temperature when the
surrounding air temperature changes.

19
• Aquatic environments have more stable
temperatures than terrestrial environments do.

• Another consequence is that cells and the

bodies of organisms do not change temperature
readily.

• Bulky organisms particularly tend to have a

stable body temperature in the face of a
fluctuating surrounding temperature, whether in
extremes of heat or cold.

20
Latent heat of vaporization of water
• The hydrogen bonds between water
molecules make it difficult for them to be
separated and vaporized.

• This means that much energy is needed

to turn liquid water into water vapor.

21
• This amount of energy known as the
latent heat of vaporization, and for
water it is very high.

• Consequently, the evaporation of

water in sweat on the skin, or in
transpiration from green leaves,
causes marked cooling because the
escaping molecules take a lot of
energy with them.
22
• And since a great deal of heat is lost
within the evaporation of a small
amount of water, cooling by
evaporation of water is also
economical on water.

23
24
• The amount of heat energy needed to
melt ice is very high, and the amount
of heat that must be removed from
water to turn into ice is also great.

25
• This amount of heat energy is known as
the latent heat of fusion.

• Again, it is very high for water. This means

that both the contents of cells and the
water in the environment are slow to
freeze when it very cold.

26
 Effect of temperature on water
density
• Most liquids contract on cooling, reaching their
maximum density at their freezing point.

• Water is unusually reaching its maximum density

at 4ºC.

• As water freezes, the ice formed is less dense

than the cold water around it. The ice floats on
top. The floating layer of ice insulates the water
below.
27
• This is why the bulk of ponds, lakes or the
sea rarely freeze solid.

• Aquatic life can generally survive a freeze-

up.

28
 Surface tension- adhesive and
cohesive forces
• Water adheres strongly to most surfaces
and can be drown up into long columns
through narrow tubes like the xylem
vessels of plant stems, without the water
column breaking.

29
• Compared with other liquids, water has
extremely strong adhesive and cohesive
properties that prevent the column
breaking under tension.

30
• The outermost molecules of water form
hydrogen bonds with water molecules below
them.

• This gives a very high surface tension to water-

higher than that of any other liquid except
mercury. Surface skate.

• The insect’s waxy cuticle prevents wetting of its

body, and the mass of the insect is not great
enough to break through the surface.

31
32
 pH as measure of hydrogen ion in
aqueous solution
• pH scale which ranger from 0 -14
compress the range of H+ and OH-
concentration by employing logarithms.

• The pH of a solution is defined as the

negative logarithms (base 10) of the
hydrogen ion concentration:
pH = - log [ H+ ]
33
• pH declines as H+ concentration
increases.

• An acid is a substance that increases the

hydrogen ion concentration of a solution.

• A base is a substance that reduces the

hydrogen ion concentration of a solution,
therefore it has a higher concentration of
hydroxyl ions.
34
 CARBOHYDRATE

carbohydrates

monosaccharides disaccharides polysaccarides

carbonyl group hydroxyl group starch glycogen cellulose

35
 Use of carbohydrates:
• Source of energy

• Storage of energy

• Structural component of cell membranes

and cell walls

36
 Three main groups
1. Monosaccharides – single sugars

3. Disaccharides – double sugars

5. Polysaccharides- many sugars

• All are composed of carbon, hydrogen and

oxygen atoms.

37
 MONOSACCHARIDES
• Characteristic:
1. Small
2. Sweet
3. Readily soluble in water

• General formula : ( CH2O)n

(glucose – C6H12O6)

• Carbonyl group and hydroxyl group

38
 TYPE
1. Triosa sugar – contains 3 carbon atoms
(glyceraldehydes)

3. Pentose sugar – contains 5 carbon

atoms (ribose)

5. Hexose sugar – contains 6 carbon atoms

(glucose)

39
40
FUNCTIONAL GROUP

i. Ketose , e.g fructose

iii. Aldose, e.g glucose

41
42
 Two types of glucose
∀ α - glucose and β- glucose

• With six carbon atoms numbered

• Are said to be isomers (different

compounds with the same molecular
formula.

43
44
 DISACCHARIDES
• Small, sweet and soluble.

• Monosaccharides may join together to

give a double sugar molecule – a
disaccharide.

• Joined together to form it by a

condensation reaction.
45
• The bond between two carbon atoms is
called a glycosidic bond.

• All condensation reactions can be

reversed by adding water to the glycosidic
bond – this is known as hydrolysis.

46
47
48
 POLYSACCHARIDES
• Are formed when many hundreds of
monosaccharides condense (join) to form
chains.

• The chains formed may be:

1. Variable in length
2. Branched or unbranched
3. Folded – ideal for energy storage
4. Straight or coiled

49
• Characteristic of polysaccharides:

1. large,
2. not sweet
3. Insoluble in water

50
 Starch
• Used as storage of glucose in plants.

1. Amylose
2. Amylopectin

51
 Amylose
• Made from α-glucose molecules

• Forming unbranched helical chain of 300

units in length.

• Each α-glucose is joined by a glycosidic

bond between neighbouring C1 and C4
atoms.

52
53
54
 Amylopectin
• Made from α-glucose molecules

• Forming branched chains of up to 1500 units

• Branches occur every 30 units and are formed

between neighbouring C1 and C6 atoms which
are then held together by glycosidic bond.

55
 Glycogen
• Is the only carbohydrate energy store
found in animals.

• Found in liver and muscle tissue and

made up of short branched chains of α-
glucose units.

56
57
 Cellulose
• Important structural materials in plants

• Long chains of β-glucose units which are

unbranched but parallel strands of
cellulose are linked by means of hydrogen
bonds, making the cell wall a very stable
structure.

58
59
60
 LIPIDS

General term for any water-insoluble organic

molecules that can be extracted from cells
by ethers, benzene, or other nonpolar
solvents.

61
 3 MAJOR CLASSES OF LIPIDS

1. TRIGLYCERISES
e.g. Fat & oil

4. PHOSPHOLIPIDS
e.g. Lecithin

7. STEROIDS
e.g. Cholesterol & Testosterone

62
 FORMATION VIA CONDENSATION

Breakdown By Hydrolysis

63
 IMPORTANCE OF LIPIDS
• Energy storage
• Component of cell membrane
• Insulation : blubber
• Emulsifiers
• Important carriers or precursors of
important flavor and odor compounds.
• Transports fat-soluble vitamins
• Immune system
• Contributes to obesity, coronary heart
disease and other health problems. 64
 TRYGLYCERIDE
Composed of 3 fatty acid molecules attached
to a glycerol backbone

65
66
 FATTY ACIDS
• Long linear hydrocarbon chains
• One end - contains a carboxylic acid group
• The other end is the methyl, "n" or omega
end.

67
Classification of fats based on fatty acids

1. Saturated fat : saturated fatty acid

2. Unsaturated fat : unsaturated fatty acid

68
 Classification fatty acids
Based on the number of double bonds at the
hydrocarbon chain :

• Saturated fatty acid [ CnH2O2 ] .

E.g. Stearic acid.

2. Unsaturated fatty acid [ CnH2nO2 ].

E.g. Oleic acid.

69
70
 PHOSPHOLIPIDS
Example : Lecithin (in cell membrane structure).

71
Importance of lecithin in cell membrane
structure:-

• Polarization leads to solubility in water. It act

as a permeability barrier, so that exchanges
across this membrane are very limited and
very slow.

• Permeable to water molecules, but not to

ions such as Na+, K+, and Cl-.
72
 STEROIDS
Examples : Cholesterol & Testosterone.

Structure of Steroids.

73
Structure of Cholesterol.

74
Structure of testosterone.
Testosterone :

Male sex hormone

that stimulates sperm
formation, promotes
the development of
the male duct system
in the fetus, and is
responsible for
secondary sex
characteristics such
as facial hair growth.
75
 Steroid abuses
• Effect of anabolic steroids abuses :
1. Impotent
2. Liver tumors
3. Renal failure

• Effect of topical corticosteroids: clinical

examples of abuses.
1. Iatrogenic Cushing syndrome
2. Ichthyosiform scaling.
3. Itchy skin lesion 76
• Other effects of steroids abuses :

– Cardiovascular disease : heart attack & stroke.

– Cause male-pattern baldness, cysts, acne, and oily hair

and skin.

– Affect your mood - angry &hostile for no reason.

There are recorded cases of murder attributed to intense
anger from steroid use.

– Increase the risk of infection from sharing needles or

using dirty needles to inject steroids puts you at risk for
diseases such as HIV/AIDS & hepatitis.

77
 IMPORTANCE OF
CHOLESTEROL IN HEALTH
 Increase the membrane permeability
of non-polar solutes. The presence of
the steroids moves the polar heads
further apart, giving greater access of
non-polar substances to the lipid
layers, plus these materials also tend
to be soluble in the steroids
themselves.
78
 PROTEIN
• Are always composed of nitrogen, carbon,
hydrogen and oxygen and sometimes sulphur
and phosphorus.

79
 Function of protein:
1. Nutrition – digestive enzymes.
2. Transport of respiratory gases –
haemoglobin.
3. Immunity – antibodies.
4. Co-ordination – hormomes.
5. Growth and repair – membrane proteins.
6. Support and movement – myosin/actin,
keratin.
80
 Protein molecule
• Each different proteins molecule is made under the direction
of its own gene and performs its precise function.

• The shape of it is determined by its amino acids sequence.

• Amino acids are the building blocks from which protein are
made.

• There are about 20 commonly occuring amino acids in protein.

• All have the same basic structure but differ in their

RESIDUAL CHAIN ( R ).
81
82
83
84
85
 Formation of Polypeptides
• Two amino acids can be joined by a condensation
reaction to form a dipeptide.

• If any amino acids are joined together by peptide

bonds then a polypeptide is formed.

• A polypeptide usually contains hundreds of amino

acids.

• The repeated sequence (-N-C-C-N-) is the

polypeptide backbone. 86
87
88
 Structure of proteins
• A typical protein consists of one or more polypeptide
chains which may be folded, branched and cross-
linked at intervals.

• Each proteins has a specific three-dimensional shape.

• In describing the structure of a protein, it is usual to

refer to four separate levels of organization.

• Primary, secondary, tertiary and quaternary.

89
90
 Primary structure
• This describe the sequence of amino acids in
the protein and usually determines its eventual
shape and biological function.

• The twenty commonly occuring amino acids

can be arranged in an enoromous variety of
different ways in giving rise to many different
proteins.
91
92
93
 Secondary structure
• Once a linear chain of amino acids is formed it
spontaneously folds to form a helix or a
pleated sheet.

• Hydrogen bonds holds the secondary structure

together.

94
95
 Tertiary structure
• Once they have been folded by hydrogen
bonds, polypeptides may then fold into a
globular shape which is maintained by
hydrogen bonds, ionic bonds and covalent
bonds between sulphur atoms in the residual
chains of the amino acids.

96
97
 Quaternary structure
• Some proteins consists of more than one
polypeptide chain.

• Human haemoglobin is an example.

• It consists of four chains (two α-polypeptide

chains and two β-polypeptide chains) wrapped
around an iron haem group.
98
99
100
101
 NUCLEIC ACID
• Nucleic Acids are very Large and Complex Organic
Molecules that STORE Important Information in the Cell.
(Genetic or Heredity Information)

• Nucleic Acids use a System of FOUR Compounds to

store Heredity Information. A Sequence of the four
compounds arranged in a certain order acts as a Code
for Genetic Instructions of the Cell.

• DEOXYRIBONUCLEIC ACID, OR DNA, contains

information that is essential for almost all Cell Activities,
Including Cell Division.

102
• RIBONUCLEIC ACID, OR RNA, Stores
and Transfers Information essential for the
Manufacturing of Proteins.

• Both DNA and RNA are Polymers,

composed of thousands of linked
Monomers called NUCLEOTIDES.

103
STRUCTURE OF DNA AND RNA
• Each Nucleotide is made of THREE Main
Components:

– A PHOSPHATE GROUP,
– A FIVE-CARBON SUGAR,
– A RING SHAPED NITROGEN BASE

104
105
Pentose

• The sugar found in the nucleotides of DNA is

deoxyribose.

• Ribose is found in RNA.

• Deoxyribose and ribose are pentose sugars

(containing 5 carbon atoms).

• The carbon atoms are numbered for orientation

and "primes" are used to distinguish the atoms
of the sugars from the atoms of the nitrogenous
bases in nucleotides.
106
Pentose

• Note that the 5' ("five prime") carbon atom is not

a part of the ring.

• The fifth atom of the ring is an oxygen.

• The only difference between deoxyribose and

ribose is that deoxyribose lacks a hydroxyl group
at the 2' position.

• Thus, the deoxyribose found in nucleic acids is

more properly known as 2'-deoxyribose.
107
PENTOSE SUGAR

108
Bases
• The nitrogenous bases of nucleotides are ring structures
of nitrogen and carbon with other organic side chains
attached at specific locations.

• Bases classified as purines have a double structure and,

depending on the organic side chains attached, may be
either adenine or guanine.

• Bases classified as pyrimidines have a single ring

structure and may be cytosine, uracil, or thymine.

• The numbering shown around the generalized structures

in these figures are used for orientation.

• Purines are adenine and guanine

• Pyrimidines are thymine, cytosine and uracil 109

110
111
 Formation of nucleotide
• Pentose, phosphate group and bases link up to
form a nucleotide via condensation reaction.

• Base is joined to carbon atom 1 of the pentose

molecule.

• Phosphate group attached to the sugar molecule

at atom 5.

• Two molecules of water are removed in the

process.
112
113
114
115
 Formation of polynucleotide
• Nucleotides are combinded end-to-end to form a
single strand of nucleic acid.

• In a single strand, nucleotides are linked by a

phosphodiester bond, a covalent bond, between
the alpha phosphate of one nucleotide to the 3'
carbon of the adjacent nucleotide.

• At one end of the stand, a free (unattached) 5'

phosphate group from the terminal nucleotide is
found.

116
117
118
Polynucleotide sequences are referenced
in the 5' to 3' direction.

• Typically, polynucleotides will contain a 5'

phosphate and 3' hydroxyl terminal groups.

• The common representation of polynucleotides

is as an arrow with the 5' end at the left and
the 3' end at the right.

119
 Structure of DNA
• In most living organisms (except for viruses), genetic
information is stored in the molecule deoxyribonucleic
acid, or DNA.

• DNA is made and resides in the nucleus of living cells.

• DNA gets its name from the sugar molecule contained in

its backbone(deoxyribose); however, it gets its
significance from its unique structure.

• Four different nucleotide bases occur in DNA: adenine

(A), cytosine (C), guanine (G), and thymine (T).
120
• The DNA molecule is a double helix, as
shown at right.

121
122
• The two strands are held together by
hydrogen bonds that form between the
nitrogenous bases of opposite strands.

• E.g; adenine pairs with thymine and form

two hydrogen bonds, cytosine pairs with
guanine and form three hydrogen bonds.

• This known as complementary base

pairing.
123
 Structure of RNA
• Single strand-stranded molecule.

• Sugar ribose is found in the nucleotide.

• Adenine, guanine, cytosine and uracil.

• Three types; mRNA, rRNA and tRNA.

124
• Functions of RNA:

– mRNA directs the translation of proteins,

– RNAs of ribosomes (1/3 protein and 2/3 RNA)
probably have functional as well as structural
roles,
– tRNA delivers amino acids to the ribosomes
during translation,

125
Features DNA RNA

Basic unit Deoxyribonucleotide Ribonucleotide

Pentose Deoxyribose Ribose

Nitrogenous base Adenine, Guanine, Adenine, Guanine,

Cytosine, Thymine Cytosine, Uracil

Structure double helix consisting of single strand

two chains (STRANDS)
of nucleotides coiled
around each other
Size Large molecule Relatively small molecule

Location In the nucleus In the nucleus and

cytoplasm
Type One Three
126
End of this topic

127