CHAPTER 12

NERVOUS SYSTEM
12.1 The nervous system
12.2 The transmission of impulse
12.3 The synapse
12.4 Neuromuscular junction
12.4.1 Structure of the neuromuscular junction
12.4.2 Structure of the skeletal muscle
12.4.3 The sliding-filament theory
12.4.4 Mechanism of the muscle contraction
12.4.5 The autonomic nervous system
12.5 Drug abuse
 OBJECTIVES
At the end of the lesson, students should be able to :

3) Build the organization chart of the human

nervous system
4) Explain the rising of a resting potential in
neurons
5) List down the characteristics of impulse
6) Explain the propagation of impulse along the
axon
 NERVOUS SYSTEM

• To synchronize the activities of the inner body

parts (by cooperating with the endocrine /
enzymatic systems) towards general balance.

• Performs the three overlapping functions of

sensory input, integration & motor output.

• Impulse is transmitted from one receptor to an

effector specifically.
THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THE SENSORY INPUT, INTEGRATION &
MOTOR OUTPUT
Sensory input

Sensory receptor

Motor input

Brain & spinal cord

Peripheral nervous Central nervous

Effector system (PNS) system (CNS)
 ORGANIZATION

NERVOUS SYSTEM

CENTRAL PERIPHERAL
NERVOUS SYSTEM NERVOUS SYSTEM

BRAIN MOTOR
SPINAL CORD SENSORY
(EFFERENT DIV)

SOMATIC

AUTONOMIC

PARASYMPATHETIC

SYMPATHETIC
 CENTRAL NERVOUS
SYSTEM

Comprises of :
1) the brain
2) the spinal cord
 PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM
consists of neurons that interconnect the brain to all parts
of the body ;
a) the body muscle
b) the sensory organs
c) the organ built systems

the neurons are :

a) motor neurons – somatic & autonomic
b) sensory neurons
 MOTOR NEURONS
SOMATIC AUTONOMIC

• Regulates the internal environment

• Controls the by controlling smooth & cardiac
voluntarily responses muscles
which involves the • Controls the involuntarily responses
skeletal muscles of all the internal organs & glands

• Actions are controlled in the

medulla & hypothalamus

• Consists of sympathetic &

parasympathetic division.

• Both act on the same target but very

often antagonistic in the effect they
bring.
 Neuron
basic unit of nervous system
 Neuron
• Functions :
a) receive information from the inner/ outer
environment ; and/or from other neurons.
b) integrates information received & produces the
appropriate output signals.
c) guiding the signals until it reaches the far
end/terminal of a neuron.
d) sending signals to other nerve cells, glands or
muscles.

• Comprises of plasma membrane

• The selective permeability of the membrane ensures the

information from the environment reaches the desired target
RESTING POTENTIAL & THE GENERATION OF
THE ACTION POTENTIAL
• Unstimulated neuron
maintains a different charge
condition across the
membranes.

• The different charges

develops a localized
electrical gradient, which is
called the resting potential.

• The resting potential

develops when the charge is
more negative within the
cell than from the outside
(which is more positive).

• The voltage measured

across the plasma membrane
(the membrane potential) is
about -70 mV.
 RESTING POTENTIAL
• The intracellular & extracellular fluid of a neuron contains all
kinds of solutes; including ions (cations &anions)

• The fluid within the neurons contains mostly potassium ions (K+)
& a lower concentration of sodium ions (Na+)

• In contrast, the extracellular fluid contains a higher concentration

of sodium ions.
• In it’s unstimulated stage, the membrane of the neuron is highly
permeable to K+ ions which passively diffuse across the membrane
according to the concentration gradient (from the inside, out of the
membrane)

• A slow diffusion of Na+ ions occur across the membrane because the
permeability to these ions is lower than to the K+ ions.
• These diffusions do not achieve an equilibrium since the
sodium-potassium pump transports these ions against
their concentration gradient.

• This results in the resting potential condition or the

polarization stage.
THE ACHIEVEMENT OF RESTING (POLARIZED) STAGE
 THE RISING OF ACTION POTENTIAL
The neuron is stimulated by
the change in the
environment (inner / outer).

The electrical potential across

the membrane will change
form it’s resting stage; the
charge within the cell
becomes more positive
because :
– the sodium-potassium pumps
stop functioning
– Na+ ions rush into the cell,
changing the membrane
potential to a more positive
state
• The change in the
electrical potential is
called depolarization.

• If graded potentials sum to

– 55mv, a threshold
potential is achieved. This
triggers an action potential
(impulse).

• At the peak of the action

potential, the sodium-
potassium pumps continue
functioning; the
conductivity of the Na+
ions decreases while the
conductivity of the K+
ions increases again
• The K+ ions diffuse out
passively from the
cell; resulting a more
negative state within
the cell.

• The neuron is said to

undergo repolarization
which ultimately
reaches the resting
stage.
 CHANGES IN THE MEMBRANE POTENTIAL :
DEPOLARIZATION, ACTION POTENTIAL, REPOLARIZATION
• In the resting state, both the sodium channel
and potassium channel are closed, and the
membrane’s resting potential is maintained.
• During the depolarizing phase, the action
potential is generated as activation gates of
the sodium channels open, and the
potassium channel remains closed.
THE TRANSMISSION OF
IMPULSE
 THE TRANSMISSION OF IMPULSE
Is an electrical phenomena
that occurs through the
dendrite, dendron & the
axon.

Involves 2 important
phases :
1) the resting stage
2) the action potential

The features of action

potentials / impulse are :
1) stimulation
2) all-or-nothing event
3) refractory period
4) speed of conduction
 STIMULATION
There are 2 kinds of stimulation that affect the nerves:

1) common stimulation
- involves the stimulation of the receptor organs
- e.g light, sound, taste, smell

2) situational stimulation
- all the stimulation that are capable of depolarizing
the axons.
- e.g mechanical, chemical, heat, pressure, electrical
stimulations.
 ALL-OR-NOTHING EVENT
The size of a nerve impulse is not determined by the size of the
stimulation received.
The action potential is triggered only if the depolarization of the
membrane is above the threshold level.
Below the threshold level, the stimulation is not sufficient to
depolarize the membrane & thus triggering the action potential.

If an action potential is achieved, a stronger intensity of a

stimulus won’t increase the size of it.
THE ALL-OR-NOTHING EVENT
 REFRACTORY PERIOD
• Impulse ‘travels’ one-way along the
axon from the excitable region to the
resting region next to it.

• The previously active region

undergoes a recovery phase which is
known as the refractory period.

• Two phases are involved in this very

short period of about 5-10ms :
1) absolute refractory period
2) relative refractory period
 Absolute refractory period
• the previously active region
undergoes a recovery phase
during which the axon cannot
respond to a depolarization
even if the stimulus intensity
is increased.

• during this period the axon

membrane goes through
hiperpolarization; the
membrane’s permeability to
K+ ions increases
dramatically.

• these ions diffuse out very

highly making the charge
within the neuron becomes
too negative.
 Relative refractory period
a phase following the
absolute refractory
period where a high-
intensity stimulus
may produce a
depolarization.

• the axon membrane

reaching its normal
permeability state,
allowing the Na+ ions
into the cell; the
charge within the cell
slowly becomes less
negative; nearing its
resting state.
 SPEED OF CONDUCTION
Depends on :
a) the presence of myelin
sheath

• act as an electrical insulator

• depolarization only occurs at

the nodes of Ranvier where
no myelin sheath is present.

• local circuits are set up at

these points & current flows
across the axon membrane
generating the next action
potential.
• in effect, the action
potential ‘jumps’ from
node to node & passes
along the myelinated
axon faster.

• this type of conduction

is called saltatory.

• the conduction
velocities is increased
up to 50x as compared
to in the unmyelinated
axon.
b) The axon diameter

the bigger the diameter,

the higher the velocity of
the propagated action
potential.

the resistance is reduced

when the diameter of the
axon is big
THE SALTATORY CONDUCTION ALONG THE MYELINATED AXON
 GENERATION & PROPAGATION OF IMPULSE

The action potential is produced

locally in axon; the membrane is
depolarized at a specific area in the
axon.

The action potential ‘flows’ along the

axon because it is self-propagated.

• An action potential achieved at one

region of the membrane is sufficient to
depolarized a neighboring region
above threshold because the
depolarized area has a different charge
from the inactive area next to it; thus a
local circuit is produced.
The current flow from one
activated region to the
inactivated area enables
depolarization to occur, thus
produces the action potential.

The continuous occurrence of

depolarization from one area
to the one next to it, ensures
the transmission of impulse
even in a great distance.
THE PROPAGATION OF IMPULSE ALONG THE AXON
SYNAPSE
 Objectives
At the end of the lesson, students should be able to:

Draw out and label a picture of a synapse

Explain the mechanism of the impulse transmission

across the synapse

Compare the transmission of impulse across the

synapse with the transmission along the axon
 Synapse
• An area of functional
between neurons for
transferring information.

• Found between fine

terminal branches (axon),
dendrites or cell body.

• 2 types of synapses
a) electrical
b) chemical
 Structure of the chemical synapse

Commonly found in
vertebrates

Consist a bulbous
expansion of a nerve
terminal called synaptic
knob
The membrane of the
synaptic knob is thickened
and form the presynaptic
membrane

The thickened membrane

of the dendrite is termed
the postsynaptic membrane

The two membranes are

separated by a gap called
synaptic cleft (20nm)
 Structure of the chemical synapse
The cytoplasm of the
synaptic knot
contains
mitochondria,
smooth endoplasmic
reticulum,
microfilaments,and
numerous synaptic
vesicles

Each vesicle
contains a chemical
neurotransmitter
substance
 Two main neurotransmitter
substances are
a) acetylcholine
- secreted by parasympathetic
b) noradrenaline
- secreted by sympathetic
nerves

• Protein channels are found on

the postsynaptic membrane and
they have receptors for the
neurotransmitter substance

• These channels allow the

movement of ions into the
postsynaptic neurons
Mechanism of synaptic
transmission
 Mechanism of synaptic transmission
The arrival of nerve
impulses at the
synaptic knob
depolarizes the
presynaptic
membrane.

The permeability of
the membrane to Ca2+
ions is increased, and
they easily enter the
knob.
The entrance of those ions
causes the synaptic
vesicles to fuse with the
presynaptic membrane and
rupture; discharging their
contents into the synaptic
cleft.

The vesicles then return to

the cytoplasm where they
are refilled with
neurotransmitter
substance.
• The neurotransmitter
substance diffuses across the
synaptic cleft and attaches to
a specific receptor site on the
postsynaptic membrane;
causing the opening of the
protein channels.

• Na+ ions enter the

postsynaptic neurons,
followed by the leaving of
K+ ions down their
respective concentration
gradient.

• This leads to a depolarization

of the postsynaptic
membrane.
• The depolarization
response is known as an
excitatory postsynaptic
potential (EPSP)

• Having produced a change

in the permeability of the
postsynaptic membrane,
the neurotransmitter
substance is then
hydrolyzed by a specific
enzyme
– acetylcholine is
hydrolyzed by
acetylcholinesterase

– noradrenalin is
hydrolyzed by
monoaminoxidase
• The depolarizing effect of the EPSP is additive, a phenomenon called
summation:

– two or more EPSP arising simultaneously at different regions on the same

neuron may produce collectively sufficient depolarization (spatial
summation).

– rapid release of transmitter substance from several synaptic vesicles by the

same synaptic knob produces individual EPSP close together, they summate
and give rise to action potential in postsynaptic neuron (temporal
summation).
The action potential produced is then transmitted along the postsynaptic axon by the
flow of an electric current.
The summation effect of EPSP delays the transmission of impulse in neurons; but it
ensures the flow of impulse is unidirectional.
Because: the synaptic vesicles only exist in the presynaptic membrane side.

Fig 12.11 : The relationship between EPSP with the achievement of action potential
Comparison of impulse transmission : across the synapse and
along the axon

Synapse Axon
1. Impulse is chemically transmitted. 1. Impulse is electrically transmitted.
1. Involves the neurotransmitter substances. 1. No neurotransmitter substances are
involved.
1. Impulse transmission is slower because : 1. Impulse transmission is very fast.

-the neurotransmitter need to diffuse

across the synaptic cleft

-the summation of EPSP is needed to

reach the threshold level

• Involves the diffusion of Ca+ ions into • Ca+ ions are not involved.
the synaptic knob to activate the vesicles.

1. The diffusion of Na across the membrane 1. The diffusion of Na across the membrane
is needed. is needed.
NEUROMUSCULAR JUNCTION
 OBJECTIVES
At the end of the lesson, students should be able to:
• draw out a label picture of a neuromuscular junction
completely
• explain the rising of end-plate potential
• explain the fine structure of the skeletal muscle which
consists of myofibril, actin, myosin and sarcomere.
 STRUCTURE OF THE NEUROMUSCULAR JUNCTION

• SPECIALIZED FORM OF SINAPSE FOUND BETWEEN

NERVE TERMINALS & MUSCLE FIBRES

• THE CYTOPLASM OF THE MOTOR NEURON

TERMINAL RELEASES ACETYLCHOLINE ON
STIMULATION

• THE REGION WHERE THE THE AXON OF THE MOTOR

NEURON DIVIDES & FORM NON-MYELINATED
BRANCHES ON THE MEMBRANE CELL SURFACE IS
CALLED THE THE MOTOR END- PLATE

• POSTSYNAPTIC MEMBRANE (MUSCLE MEMBRANE )

CALLED SARCOLEMMA HAS MANY FOLDS CALLED
JUNCTIONAL FOLDS

• A LOCAL DEPOLARIZATION AT EACH MOTOR END

PLATE PRODUCES END-PLATE POTENTIAL (EPP)

• EPP IS SUFFICIENT TO LEAD TO A PROPAGATED

ACTION POTENTIAL ALONG SARCOLEMMA DOWN
INTO THE MUSCLE FIBRE VIA TRANSVERSE TUBULE
SYSTEM (T-SYSTEM)
 STRUCTURE OF THE SKELETAL MUSCLE
• The major components are the
cylindrical muscle fibres; which
measure about 10 – 100µm in
diameter and 1 – 40 mm in
length

• Within the muscle fibres are

numerous thin myofibrils

• Each myofibril is composed of

two types of proteinaceous
myofilaments, actin (thin
filaments) and myosin (thick
filaments)
• The cytoplasm of the
myofibril is called
sarcoplasm and contains
a network of internal
membranes termed the
sarcoplasmic reticulum

• The skeletal muscle is

observed to be striated; a
regular alternation of light
and dark bands

• The light and the dark

bands are called the I and
A bands respectively
• The bands are due to the regular
arrangement of actin and
myosin

• Traversing the middle of each I

band is a dark line called the Z
line

• The section of a myofibril

between two Z line is called a
sarcomere; the functional unit
of muscle contraction

• In certain regions of the

sarcomere, actin and myosin
filaments overlap

• Myosin and actin filaments

constitute the A band, whilst
actin filament alone constitute
the I band
• The centre of the A band is lighter
than its other regions because it
constitutes only the filament
myosin, and is called the H band

• The H band is bisected by a dark

line, the M line; which joins
adjacent myosin filaments together
at a point halfway along their length

• Running transversely across the

fibre and between fibrils is a system
of tubules known as the T system

• The T system is in contact with the

surface of the sarcolemma
• At certain points the T tubules
pass between the pairs of
vesicles which are components
of the sarcoplasmic reticulum

• The vesicles are involved in the

uptake and release of Ca2+ ions
which controls the contractile
behaviour of the muscle fibre
 MECHANISM OF MUSCLE CONTRACTION
• AT REST, TROPOMYOSIN BLOCKS THE
MYOSIN ATTACHMENT TO ACTIN

• UPON STIMULATION BY NERVE

IMPULSE, Ca2+ IONS ARE RELEASED
INTO THE SARCOPLASM

• THE IONS BIND TO THE TROPONIN

COMPLEX

• TROPONIN COMPLEX CHANGES ITS

CONFORMATION

• NOW THE MYOSIN BINDING SITES

ARE EXPOSED

• MYOSIN HEADS ATTACHED TO THE

ACTIN FILAMENT

• CROSS BRIDGES ARE FORMED

• MUSCLE CONTRACTS
• IN SOME MUSCLES Ca2+ ALSO
STIMULATES THE MYOSIN
ATPASE ACTIVITY.

• THE ATPASE HYDROLIZES THE

ATP & CHANGE THE MYOSIN
HEAD TO A HIGH ENERGY
CONFIGURATION.
•
• THIS ALLOWS THE FORMATION
OF CROSS BRIDGES.

• WHEN THE EXCITATION OF THE

SARCOMERES CEASES, Ca2+ ARE
PUMPED BACK INTO THE
VESICLES.
•
• SARCOMERES RELAXES
THE MECHANISM OF MUSCLE CONTRACTION
The Sliding Filament Theory
 The Sliding – Filament Theory
Proposed by Huxley and
Hanson in 1954.

They suggested that the muscle

contracts when the thin filament
(actin) and the thick filament
(myosin) slide past each other.

During contraction the actin

filament move inwards towards
the centre of the sarcomere,
making it (the sarcomere)looks
shorter without changing the
length of the A band.
• The myosin head is the centre of
bioenergetic reactions that power
muscle contraction.

• The high energy configuration

heads of the myosin filament
operate like a hook attaching to
the specific sites on actin in a
particular way to form cross
bridges.

• The high energy configuration

state is achieved when the ATP
molecules bound to the heads
been hydrolyzed into ADP and
inorganic phosphate, and
releasing high energy used to
change the configuration.
• The myosin heads then
change their relative
configuration such that the
actin molecules are pulled
further into the A band.

• After the process is

completed, the myosin
heads, bound to another
ATP molecules, detach
from the actin.
• They then split the new ATP
molecules to revert to the high
energy configuration and attach to
another sites further along the actin
filament.

• The cross bridge

attachment/detachment cycles
could be repeated many times
depending on the speed of
shortening.

• The pulling of the actin filament

repeatedly towards the centre is
unidirectional in a mechanism
called the ratchet mechanism.
 AUTONOMIC
NERVOUS SYSTEM
 OBJECTIVES
• At the end of the lesson, students should be
able to :

Explain the structure and the functions of the

sympathetic and parasympathetic systems

Compare both the sympathetic and the

parasympathetic system
MAMALIAN AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM (ANS)

A part of peripheral nervous system controlling the involuntary

activities of internal environment ;eg: heart rate, peristalsis, sweating

Consist of motor neuron passing to the smooth muscles of internal

organ and cardiac muscle

Most activities of ANS is integrated locally within the spinal cord or

brain by visceral reflexes

ANS composed 2 types of neurons :

Preganglionic neuron (mylienated) – emerges from CNS
Postganglionic neuron (unmylienated) – leading the effectors
• 2 division of ANS :

Symphatetic nervous system

Parasymphatetic nervous system

The two systems differ primarily in the structural

organization of their neurons
SYMPATHETIC NERVOUS SYSTEM (SNS)
Neurons are originated from spinal cord( the thoracic + lumbar
region)

Synapses + cell bodies of postganglionic neurons in the trunk region

are situated in ganglia close to spinal cord

Adjacent segmental symphatetic ganglia on each side of spinal cord

are linked together by the sympathetic nerve tract

They form chain of symphatetic ganglia running alongside the spinal

cord

Its preganglionic neurons are shorter than postganglionic neurons

The chemical transmitter substance released at postganglionic effector

synapses in noradrenalin (Ad)
The effect s spread to all part of the body and
takes time to decease

The symphatetic nervous system is especially

dominant under stress or at time danger

Eg.of its effects :

Dilates pupil
Increase amplitude and rate of heart beat
Increase ventilation rate
Constricts arterioles to gut and smooth muscle
 PARASYMPHATETIC NERVOUS SYSTEM (PNS)
Neurons originated from the cranial and the sacral region of the CNS

The ganglia of PNS situated close to or within the effector organ

Its preganglionic neurons longer than its postganglionic neurons

Chemical transmitter substance secreted at the postganglionic

synapses is AceKoa

Its effect – locally and short

PNS controls the routine activities of the body at rest ; a compensation

for the symphatetic effect

Eg :
decrease the amplitude + rate of heart beat,ventilation rate
Maintains steady muscle tone in atrioles to gut,smooth muscle,brain and skeletal
muscle
Differences between symphatetic & parasymphatetic nervous system

Feature Symphatetic Parasymphatetic

Origin of neuron Emerges from thoracic and Emerges from cranial +
lumbar regions of CNS sacral regions of CNS

Position of ganglion Close to spinal cord Close to effector

Length of fibres Short preganglionic , long Long preganglionic

postganglionic fibers fibers,short postganlionic
fibers

Numbers of fibers Numerous postganglionic fibres Few ganglionic fibers

Distribution of fibers Preganglionic fibers innervate a Preganglionic fibers

wide area innervate a restricted
region
Area of influence Effect difuse Effect localized
 Feature Symphatetic Parasymphatetic

Transmitter substance Noradrenalin released at AceKoa released at

effector effector
General effects •Increase metabolite •Restores sensory
•Lowers sensory threshold threshold to normal level
•Decrease metabolite level

Overall effect Excitatory homeostatic Inhibitory homeostatic

effects effect
Condition when active Dominant during •Dominant during rest
danger,stress + activity •Controls routine body
activities
DRUG ABUSE
 OBJECTIVES
At the end of the lesson the students should be able to :

• Give the definition of drugs

• List and give explanations of the 5 types of drugs

• Explain the effect of cocaine on the synapses and

neuromuscular junction
 DRUGS……………
Definition
– Any chemical substance that alters the physiological state of a living organisms

• Also known as psychoactive substance which could lead to addiction if

abused
– giving harmful effect to mental & physical activities

• Addiction
– Chemically dependent on drugs resulting from the body tolerance
– more dosage is needed to get the same effect

Individual is said to be addicted when the drugs has taken over the
important role in his biochemical reaction

Most drugs interfere with the impulse transmission by :

– Changing
– Hindering synthesis the neurotransmitter substance
– Releasing and absorbing
 STIMULANT DEPRESSANT

TYP ES O F DRUG S

HALLUCINOGEN INHALANT

ANTI-
DEPRESSANT
 STIMULANT
• Small dosage - activities of CNS (feeling more energetic)

• High dosage/prolong consumption – lead to depression

• Eg :
• Caffeine – prevents the hydrolyses of neurotransmitter substances –
continuous depolarization occurs at the postsynapse membrane

• Small dosage – stimulates the cerebrum cortex-increase alertness

• High dosage – influence medulla oblongata – interfering motor and

intellectual coordination

• Nicotine – mimics the effect of AceKoa on receptor and stimulates the

sensory receptors
- short term use – change in heart beat rate and blood pressure

6. Amphetamines and cocaine

• Block the reabsorption of neurotransmitters from the postsynapses
membrane – continuous depolarization of the postsynapse
membranes in long period
 DEPRESSANT
Lowering activities in CNS – lowering body activities as a
whole

Eg : Barbiturates

Gives different based on dosage consumed

– Low dosage
• stimulate synaptic activities, so persons would in state of euphoria/excited

– High dosage
• synaptic action is hindered ( a feeling of depression is experienced by the
individual)
 HALLUCINOGEN
Change the perception of the senses especially sight and
hearing

Some acts by imitating/inhibiting the action of

neurotransmitter substance

Most involve in causing disorientation and hallucinating –

not fatal

Eg:
– LSD (Lysergic acid diethylamide)
– Marijuana
 ANTI-DEPRESSANT
(TRANQUILIZERS)
• Use as pain killer & to lessen anxiety

• Mimic the action of endorphin and enkephalins which are

neuromodulators that assist the action of the neurotransmitter
substances
 Endorphin + enkephalins inhibit the transmission of pain signals to brain

• Eg :
 Narcotics ( heroin, morphine)

Prolong consumption of narcotics

 increase the receptors for enkephalins – bind to the receptor used
by enkephalins –therefore, pain signals are prevented from
reaching brain
Prolong consumption of narcotics
increase the receptors for enkephalins – bind to the
receptor used by enkephalins –therefore, pain signals
are prevented from reaching brain

High dosage – needed when body becomes tolerant to

the drug

When drug withdrawn from body – pain pathway

neurons become extremely sensitive

Because number of enkephalins receptor has been

increased, more receptors are left unbound by
enkephalins and pain impulses are not blocked

The withdrawing addict experiences greater pain than

normal until the number of receptors reaches its
preaddiction level
 INHALANT

Drugs that taken by means of inhaling

Eg:
Organics solvent
Ether
Chloroform
Organic based adhesive substance
Causes :
Hallucination
Higher heart beat rate
Anaesthetize condition
A near fainted feelings
 COCAINE :
THE MECHANISM OF ACTION
As stimulant, cocaine effects the brain’s limbic
system (the body’s “pleasure centre”) by imitating
a neuromodulator that blocks the reabsorption of
dopamine (neurotransmitter substance) back into
the presynapse membranes

Result of blockage
dopamine stays in synaptic clefts and continually binds to
the receptors in postsynaptic membrane
Depolarization occurs repeatedly which result in
continuous impulse transmission – causes????????
Causes :
– intense pleasure, increase energy and feeling of power

– Neuron respond to continual stimulation by reducing the

number of dopamine receptor in postsynaptic membranes

– Thus, more and more drug is needed for the addict to

experience the pleasurable effects that the dopamine binding
elicits

– Addiction build, cocaine addicts find that their pleasure centres

can’t function at all without the stimulation of drugs

– The drug’s effect wear off and the addicts begins to suffer deep
depression

When drug again introduced into the body, the mood of

depression swings to euphoria (intense feeling of happiness
and pleasant excitement)
That’s all for this topic