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A flood is any relatively high flow that overtops the natural or artificial banks in any reach of a stream. The flood is the result of runoff from rainfall or melting snow in quantities too great to be confined in the low water channels or streams. When the banks are overtopped water spreads over the flood plain and thus cause damage to crops and property within the flood plain of the stream.
It is not possible to prevent the floods but it is possible to prevent or reduce the damage due to floods by controlling the floods. Thus flood control or flood management is defined as the prevention or reduction of the flood damage.
TYPES OF FLOOD
Ordinary flood:- The flood that are sure to be equalled
in magnitude once or more times in the estimated life of the project Standard project flood (SPF):- Is the flood that is likely to be exceeded in magnitude only at rare occasions. And thus constitutes a standard for the design of structures that would provide enough flood protection. Although the SPF is of a such high magnitude. Probable maximum flood (PMF):- That might occur under the worst meteorological and hydrological conditions. This includes flood ranging in magnitude between SPF and PMF. As it is economically and practically unfeasible to provide flood control measures against all floods up to PMF value.
DESIGN FLOOD
While designing any important engineering structures provision must be made for the flood that is likely to occur during the life time of that particular structure. Therefore while designing structures we have to think of a flood value against which these structures can be designed as safe. We can neither choose a very high value nor we can choose a very low value.
The following equation can be used to extend the rating curve Q= K d n Where, Q= Discharge (Cumecs) d= Stage in (m) K, n = Constants By taking logarithms of both sides, we get, Log Q= log k + n Log d If the available curve is plotted on a log-log paper, then it should be a straight line. This line can be extended to calculate the discharge at a higher stage.
Logarithmic method
Dickens formula:
Q = CA Where, Q= Maximum flood Discharge in cumec. A= Area of Catchment in sq. Km C= coefficient depending upon the region The maximum value of C= 35.
Ryves Formula:
Q= CA 2/3 Where, Q= discharge in cumec A= Catchment Area in Sq. . Km C= coefficient depending upon the region
Rational Method:
In this method it is assumed that the maximum flood flow is produced by a certain rainfall intensity which lasts for a time equal to or greater than the period of concentration time. When a storm continues beyond concentration time every part of the catchment would be contributing to the runoff at outlet and therefore it represents condition of peak runoff. The runoff corresponding to this condition is given by: Q = 2. 78 C Ic A Where, Q = Discharge in Cumec, C= Coefficient which depends upon the characteristics of the catchment. Ic= The critical Intensity of rainfall (cm/hr) corresponding to the time of Concentration (tc) of the catchment for a given recurrence interval obtained from the intensity of duration frequency curves. A= Catchment Area in Km 2
representing 1 cm of runoff from a rainfall of some duration and specific areal distribution. Unit Hydrograph is defined as the hydrograph of surface runoff of a catchment area resulting from unit depth of rainfall excess or net rainfall occurring uniformly over the basin at uniform rate for a specified duration.
Hydrograph
Unit Hydrograph
Pr.n= ncr.Pr.qn-r Hence the probability of an event not occurring at all in n successive years would be equal to qn which is equal to (1P)n also the probability of an event occurring at least once in n successive years (R) would evidently be equal to 1-qn or[1-(1-P)n] R= 1-qn= [1-(1-P)n] Probability plotting on empirical relations Empirical California formula P=M/N (T)= 1/P=N/M Weibult formula:- P=M/(N+1) Hazen formula:- P= (M-0.5)/N Cbegodayev formula:- P= (M-0.3/N+0.4) Blom formula:- P= (M-0.44/N+0.12) Frequency of return period T= (N+1/M) Chance percentage = 100/T
Construction of diversion channels to reduce the discharge in the main river Constructing terraces to help increased ground infiltration Adopting soil and water conservation techniques to help increase the vegetative cover in the catchment area of the river to reduce the runoff By construction of dikes and flood walls:- dikes also called levees, are earthen embankments which are raised parallel to the river flow Provision of drainage sluices through dikes
2. Tangible losses:(a) direct tangible losses Loss of cattle and live stock Destruction of personal properties Loss of earnings and services Loss of growing and harvest in agricultural fields Reduction in property values (b) indirect tangible losses Increased expenditure in medical care Losses due to stoppage and disruption of business All these losses may become benefits as when flood control measures are assured. Expenditure on flood control is thus comparable to life insurance, where the security received is the sufficient justification for payment of premium.
Channel routing
Ground water
Aquifers:- A permeable stratum or a geological formation of permeable material which is capable of yielding appreciable quantities of ground water under gravity is known as an aquifer. Aquifer vary in depth, lateral extent and thickness but in general all aquifers fall into one of the two categories.
Aquiclude:- Geological formation of relatively impermeable material which permits storage of water but it is not capable of transmitting water in sufficient quantity ex. Clay Aquifuge:- Geological formation of relatively impermeable material which neither contains nor transmits water. Ex. Granite Aquitard:- geological formation of poorly permeable material which permits storage of water but obstructs ground water movement and does not yield water freely to wells. Ex. Sandy clay
Perched aquifer:- if within the zone of saturation on impervious deposit below a pervious deposit is found to support a body of saturated material called as perched aquifer.
Infiltration galleries:- An infiltration gallery is a horizontal conduit having permeable boundaries so that groundwater can infiltrate into the same. It is generally provided in highly permeable aquifers with high water table so that adequate head is available for gravity flow of ground water into the gallery. It is frequently located near a perennial recharge source and is sometimes placed along or under a river bed usual depth at which a gallery is placed range from 3to 6m
Water-Logging
In agricultural land, when the soil pores within the root zone of the crops gets saturated with the subsoil water, the air circulation within the soil pores gets totally stopped. This phenomenon is termed as water logging. The water logging makes the soil alkaline in character and the fertility of land is totally destroyed and the yield of the crop is reduced.
Water-Logging
Causes of Water-Logging
The following are the main cause of water logging: Over Irrigation: In inundation irrigation since there is no controlling system of water supply it may cause over irrigation. The excess water percolates and remains stored within the root zone of the crops. Again, in perennial irrigation system if water is applied more than what is required than this excess of water is responsible for water logging.
Over Irrigation
Causes of Water-Logging
Seepage from Canals: In Unlined canal systems, the water percolates through the bank of the canal and gets collected in the low lying areas along the course of the canal and thus the water table gets raised. This seepage is more in case of canal in banking
Causes of Water-Logging
Inadequate Surface Drainage: When the rainfall is heavy and there is no proper provision for surface drainage the water gets collected and submerges vast area. When the condition continuous for a long period, the water table is raised. Obstruction in Natural Water Course: If the bridges or culverts are constructed across with the opening with insufficient discharges capacity, the upstream area gets flooded and this causes water logging.
Causes of Water-Logging
Obstruction in Sub-Soil Drainage: If some impermeable stratum exists at a lower depth below the ground surface, then the movement of the subsoil water gets obstructed and this cause water logging in the area. Nature of Soil: The soil having low permeability, like black cotton soil, does not allow the water to percolate through it. So, in case of over irrigation or flood, the water retains in this type of land and cause water logging.
Nature of Soil
Causes of Water-Logging
Incorrect method of Cultivation: If the agriculture land is not levelled properly and there is no arrangement for the surplus water to flow out, then it will create pools of stagnant water leading to water logging. Seepage from Reservoir: If the reservoir basin consists of permeable zones, cracks and fissures which were not detected during the construction of dam, these may cause seepage of water. This sub-soil water will move forward toward the low lying area and cause water logging.
Causes of Water-Logging
Poor Irrigation Management: If the main canal is kept open for a long period unnecessarily without computing the total water requirement of the crops, then this leads to over irrigation, which shall result in water logging. Excessive Rainfall: If the rainfall is excessive and the water gets no time to get drained off completely, then a pool of stagnant water is formed which might lead to water logging.
Excessive Rainfall
Causes of Water-Logging
Topography of the land: If the agricultural land is flat, i.e. with no country slope and consists of depression or undulations, then this leads to water logging. Occasional Flood: If an area gets affected by flood every year and there is no proper drainage system, the water table gets affected and this cause water logging.
Causes of Water-Logging
Salination of Soil
Aeration of soil
Growth of weeds
Construction of Sump Well: Sump Well may be constructed within the water logged area and they help to collect the surface water. The water from the sump well may be pumped to the irrigable lands or may be discharged to any river.
Tile Drain
Canal Lining
In salt efflorescence soils may be classified as saline, saline-alkali and alkali soils on the basis of their soluble salt concentration and exchangeable sodium content. These soils are formed from the normal soil through the accumulation of salts from applied irrigation water or by upward moving ground water. The problem with these soils is that their crop yield is considerably low and gradually these soils become unsuitable for cultivation. The formation of these soils may be prevented through proper planning and management of irrigation. The soluble salt present in soils are mainly chlorides, sulphates and sometimes nitrates of sodium, calcium, magnesium and potassium, calcium sulphate(gypsum) and calcium magnesium carbonates
Salt efflorescence
Land Reclamation
The reclamation of land is the process of making a land culturable after it gets converted to uncultivable area due to the bad effect of water logging. The following are the general methods of land reclamation.
Land Reclamation
Leaching
Leaching is a process for reclamation of the saline soil. In this process, the agricultural land is flooded with water to a depth of about 20-30 cm. the salt deposited on the surface are dissolved. Some portion of salt is then drained off through the subsoil drainage system and some portion of salt is then drained off through the subsoil drainage system and some portion is removed by surface drainage system. This operation is repeated several times at specific intervals Generally, Leaching is followed by crop rotation as recommended by agricultural department
Leaching
Land Reclamation
Addition of Chemical Agent For improving he alkaline soil a chemical like gypsum is generally added with irrigation water. The gypsum neutralizes the alkaline effect of the soil and yield of the crop is increased. Surface Drainage Proper surface drainage system should be provided in the agricultural land so that the water does not accumulates for a long time. The surface drains also help in draining the saline water in case of leaching operation.
Land Reclamation
Sub-Surface Drainage The sub-surface drainage system on the agricultural land should also be provided for draining the excess water from the root zone. It also helps in draining of saline water in case of leaching operation. Addition of Waste Products Waste products like ground nut shells, saw dust, etc. are added to the alkaline soil and these are very effective in removing the salinity of soil.
Land Reclamation
Excavation of ponds
Ponds are excavated at suitable places within the water logged area. The excess run-off is collected in the ponds. The pore water also flows towards the pond and thus the saturation in the root zone of the crop is reduced. In fact, these ponds control the water logging in rainy season and in dry season the water of the pond may be used for lift irrigation
Excavation of Ponds
Land Reclamation
Pumping of Water from Tube Wells Some tube wells are sunk within the water logged area. The water is pumped continuously from the tube wells, Initially this water is discharged to a river or pond. When the reclamation of the land is complete, the water may be utilized for lift irrigation.