Basic Concept of Axiomatic Design II: Prof. W. Hwang Dept. of Mechanical Engineering Postech

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Chapter 03 Basic concept I
Basic Concept of Axiomatic Design II
Prof. W. Hwang
Dept. of Mechanical Engineering
Postech
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1. The Second Axiom

The Information Axiom

The design that has the smallest information contents is the best.

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2.1 Information Contents
Information content Ii for a given FR
i
is defined
in terms of the probability P
i
of satisfying FR
i
.

The information is given in units of bits.

Ex: Cutting a shaft length of 40.1 m

Probability = P = 2(0.1 m)/(4 m) = 1/20
Information = I = log
2
(1/P) = log
2
(20) = 4.32 bits

) ( log
1
log
2 2
y probabilit is P P
P
I
i i
i
i
= =
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In the general case of m FRs,

All FRs are statistically independent,

All FRs are not statistically independent,

Where P
i|{j}
is the conditional probability of satisfying FR
i

given that all other correlated {FR
j
}
j=1,, i-1
are also satisfied

) ( log
} { } { 2
y probabilit nt joi the is P P I
m m sys
=
[
=
=
m
i
i m
P P
1
} {

= =
= =
m
i
i
m
i
i sys
P I I
1
2
1
log
[
=
=
m
i
j i m
P P
1
} { | } {
} 1 , , 2 , 1 { } { = i j for
=
=
m
i
j i sys
P I
1
} { | 2
log
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Range System
Range Common
P =
CR
SR
P
I
2 2
log
1
log = =
Figure.3.1. FR vs. Probability Density
, range design in included is range system When
, range design of out is range system When
0 = I
= I
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Example 1.1 Cutting Rod to a Length
Two kinds of cutting condition

Rod A to 1 0.000001 meters and Rod B to 1 0.1 meters
The nominal length of the rod is 30 meters rather than 1 meter

How is the probability of success?

The answer depends on the cutting equipment available for the job!
However, generally

So, P
A
is lower than P
B
.
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
length nal nomi
tolerance
f P
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Example 1.2 Cutting of the Rod with a Hacksaw
The PDF of hacksaw

Rod A -> Probability 0 (For One Micron) -> I =
Rod B -> Probability = 1 (For Ten Centimeters) -> I = 0
Figure 3.2. The design ranges and the system pdf for hacksaw
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3. Complexity
Def. : A measure of uncertainty in achieving the specified FRs

Complexity is related to information content.

A design is called complex when its probability of success is low.

The greater the information required to achieve the FRs of a design, the
greater is the information content, and thus the complexity.

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4. Advantage of information axiom
Need not additional weighting factors

Select the best among those designs that are acceptable

Provide theoretical basis for design optimization and robust
design

The intention of the designer and the importance assigned to
each FR by the designer are represented by the design range.
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5.1 Robust design

How can we get robust design?

Elimination of bias
Reduction of variance
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5.2.1 Elimination of bias
The distance between the target value and the mean of the system
pdf is called bias.
Figure 3.3. Design range, system range, common range
and system pdf for a FR
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5.2.2 Elimination of bias
In one-FR design, the bias can be reduced or eliminated by
changing the appropriate DP.

However, in multi-FRs design, the bias can not eliminated when the
design is coupled.

When the design is decoupled or uncoupled design, the bias can be
eliminated by changing DPs.
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5.3 Reduction of variance
Variance : A statistical measure of the variability of a pdf.

Variability is caused by a number of factors.

Noise
Coupling
Environment
Random variations in design parameters

The variance must be minimized.
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5.3.1 Reduction of stiffness
Suppose there is only one FR that is related to its DP as

FR
1
=(A
11
)DP
1
stiffness
In a linear design, the allowable
tolerance for DP
1
, given the specified
design range for FR
1
, depends on the
magnitude of A
11
, i.e. the stiffness.

The smaller the stiffness, the larger is
the allowable tolerance of DP
1
.
Figure 3.4. Allowable variation of DP as a
function of stiffness
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Example 2.1 Automobile Wheel Cover(hub cap)
Sheet metal is pressed to make a decorative cover to hide the lug
nuts that hold the rim of the wheel assembly onto the car.
Holes are punched in the rim of the wheel and metallic clip springs
are welded in the wheel cover. To attach the cover on the rim, the
springs are pushed into the holes in the rim.
FR
1
= Prevent the cover from falling off the wheel when car goes over a bump
FR
2
= Make the mounting of the rim easy when the tires are replaced.
Design Range is from 30N to 38N
Figure 3.5. A hub cap for cars
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Because of slight misplacement of the spring during welding and
the wear of punching dies during fabrication of the rim, it was
found that the force is not always in this range.

Figure 3.6. Percentage of parts vs. retention force
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The DP is the deflection of the spring that is determined by the
relative radial position of the spring with respect to the punched-hole
location.

To reduce the system range, which is associated with the variance,
so that the system range is inside the design range, we need to use
springs with softer stiffness.
FR
1
=Retention force= A
11
(DP
1
)
=( ) (r
rim
-r
spring
) spring of stiffness A
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When we use a soft spring,
the allowable DR range is
larger than when we use a
stiff spring.

Then, we can reduce the
variance.

Figure 3.7. Spring force as a function of the required
deflection of the spring
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5.3.2.1 Immune to variation
When there are many DPs that affect a given FR, design should be
done so that the FR will be immune to variation of all these other
DPs except the one specific DP chosen to control the FR.

Consider the one-FR design problem.

FR = f(DP
a
, DP
b
, DP
c
) or

FR = A
a
DP
a
+ A
b
DP
b
+ A
c
DP
c

In this case, we make FR immune to DPb and DPc changes, which can be done
either if Ab and Ac are small or if DPb and DPc are fixed so that they remain
constant. Then, we can reduce the variation of the design.

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5.3.2.2 Immune to variation
Now consider the case of the multi-FR ideal design.

For reducing variation from errors in DPs, the coefficients A
11
, A
22

and A
33
should be small, but large enough to exceed the required
signal-to -noise ratio.

(
(
(
3
2
1
33
22
11
3
2
1
0 0
0 0
0 0
DP
DP
DP
A
A
A
FR
FR
FR
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Example 3.1 Windshield Wiper-Robust Mounting Design
Eliminate squeaking sounds under all conditions
The windshield-wiper assembly
consists of the pivot of the wiper
blades, itself and the mounting
bracket with three-mounting holes

The location of the three holes
defines the angle of the pivot of
the wiper-blade assembly when it
is mounted on the car.
Figure 3.8. Windshield and windshield
-wiper assembly
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The source of noise is the chatter
of the rubber blade due to
frictional force and the elastic
nature of the blade.

The physics of chatter

Force apply -> Exert the force on
the mass-> The spring
compression -> The spring
stretching -> Frictional force
decrease -> The mass stop ->
Repeat
Figure 3.9. Modeling of chatter
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When the direction of the wiper reverses at the end of the stroke and
goes from right to left, the blade will experience the reversal of the
loading direction- elastic unloading first, followed by the change in
the direction of the applied force.
Figure 3.10. Attack angle of blade
Figure 3.11. History of tangential force
acting on the blade
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The condition for flipping is :
u
u u
tan
sin cos
>
>
or
Fh Fh
wiper the to applied force contact ant t resul the is F
Figure 3.12. Condition for flipping of the blade
Figure 3.13. System pdf and design
range of the attack angle
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The attack angle is a function of the position of the windshield.

Where, X
1
= pivot axis
X
2
= position of the twist arm
X
3
= vector normal to the windshield

Expanding the attack angle about its mean position

) ( ) ( ) ( ) , , (
*
3 3
3
*
2 2
2
*
1 1
1
*
3
*
2
*
1
*
X X
X
X X
X
X X
X
X X X
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
+ =
u u u
u u
) , , (
3 2 1
X X X u u =
) , , (
*
3
*
2
*
1
X X X
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The mean shift in the attack angle is given by

The variance of the mean shift
) ( ) ( ) (
*
3 3
3
*
2 2
2
*
1 1
1
*
X X
X
X X
X
X X
X

c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
=
u u u
u u
2
3
3
2
2
2
2
1
1
2
) (
|
|
.
|
\
|
A
c
c
+
|
|
.
|
\
|
A
c
c
+
|
|
.
|
\
|
A
c
c
= X
X
X
X
X
X
u u u
u
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The last two term on the right-hand side of the variance may be assumed to be negligible by proper
installation of the windshield and the accurate manufacture of the twist arm.
Then, the variance of the mean shift

The deviation of the attack angle due to the pivot axis may expressed in terms of the error in the
windshield assembly as received and the errors due to deviations of mounting point coordinates for
three holes, which may be expressed as

When is (du /dM
i
) A M
i
the smallest, the attack angle is immune to the variation of the mounting
position Mi.

2
1
1
2
) (
|
|
.
|
\
|
A
c
c
= A X
X
u
u
holes three for s coordinate nt poi
mounting the are M where
i
|
|
.
|
\
|
A
c
c
+ A
c
c
= A
c
c
=
3
1
1
1
1
1
i
i
i
received as
M
M
X
X
X
X
u u u
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The net hole(solid circle) eliminates three DOF.
The elongated hole allows in-and-out motion along
one direction thus using 2 DOF.
The loose hole only restricts vertical motion.

When the net hole is at Position #3, the mean
shift and the standard deviation of the attack angle
were the smallest.

Once the #3 hole is fixed, the sensitivity was not
very high, regardless of whether #1 hole or #2 hole
was the elongated hole, although the results
favored making #1 the elongated hole.
Figure 3.14. Location of three
mounting holes.
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Problem
Meaning of I/O , U/D and F/A
motions
Role and Principal of mounting
hole
Goal of mounting

Figure ex.2.4.h Location of Mounting Holes
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1. I/O , U/D and F/A
U/D : up and down motion
I/O : in and out motion
F/A : forward and aft motion
From Rotational motion
of 3 DOF
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1-1. Motion 1(I/O and F/A)
Plate
Wiper arm
F=T/L
N
Joint
motion
I/O and F/A motion: From
Yawing Motion
Motion
I/O
F/A
Motion
Net
hole
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1-2. Motion 2-1(U/D)
U/D Motion:From
Pitching and Vibration
Motion
U : velocity of
air(140km/h over)
Motion
Vibration From
road Motion
Net
hole
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1-2. Motion 2-2 (U/D)
U
U
U/D Motion : From Rolling Motion
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2-1. Roles of Mounting Points
Net hole:
Eliminating 3DOF
Elongated hole:
Allows 2 motion(U/D, either I/O
or F/A)
Loose hole:
restricts the vertical motion(U/D)

Figure ex.2.4.h Location of Mounting Holes
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2-2. Principle mounting point
A : Net
hole
C : Loose
hole
B : Elongated
hole
1.Axis
between 2
point
2.Axis of
perpendicular
between 2point
A :
3DOF(x,y,z) motion is fixed
A and B :
Rotational motion of 2Axis
direction is fixed (1DOF)
B :
Yawing motion(1DOF) control
and Vertical motion (rotational
motion of 1Axis direction
1DOF) allows
C :
vertical motion control
6DOF motion of Plate is
controlled
Slot
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3. Goal of Mounting
Meaning :
Fix and control rigid body motion
of wiper linkage system

Keeping optimal attack angle
through to prevent vibration
problems during wiping
Figure ex.2.4.a Windshield and Windshield-
Wiper Assembly
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5.3.3.1 Fix the values of extra DPs

When the design is a redundant design the variance of the FRs can
be reduced by identifying the key DPs and preventing the extra DPs
from variation,

i.e., fixing the values of these extra DPs.

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5.3.3.2 Fix the values of extra DPs
Consider a multi-FR design.

By fixing DP
4
, DP
5
and DP
6
or by making the coefficient of these DP
zeros, we can make the design an ideal and uncoupled design.
The variation can also be reduced by setting A
14
, A
15
, A
25
, A
26
, A
34
and
A
36
to zero so that the FRs will be immune to changes of in DP
4
, DP
5

and DP
6
.
(
(
(
6
0 0 0
0 0 0
0 0 0
5
4
3
2
1
36 34 33
26 25 22
15 14 11
3
2
1
DP
DP
DP
DP
DP
DP
A A A
A A A
A A A
FR
FR
FR
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5.3.4 Minimize the random variation of DPs and PVs
One way of reducing the variance of the FRs is to reduce the
random variation of input parameters since they contribute to the
total random variation of the FRs. The variance of FR may be
expressed as

By reducing the variance of any of the DP
j
, we can reduce the
contributions to the variance of FR
i
. Moreover, if some of the DPs
are in dependent of one another, the relevant covariance terms
disappear from the above equation, further reducing the
contributions to the variance of FR
i
.

=
= =
+ =
n
j
j
k
k j ik ij
n
j
DPj ij
FRi DP DP Cov A A A
1
1
1 1
2
2
2
) , ( 2 o o
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5.3.5 Increase the design range

In some special cases, the design range can be increased
without jeopardizing the design goals.

Then, the system range may be inside the design range.( I = 0 )

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Example 4.1 Re-evaluation of buying a House
FR
1
= Commuting time must be in the range of 15 to 30 minutes.
FR
2
= The quality of the high school must be good ,i.e.,more than 65% of the high
school graduates must go to reputable colleges.
FR
3
= The quality of air must be good over 340 days a year.(original)
FR
4
= The price of the house must be reasonable, i.e., a four bedroom house with
3,000 square feet of heated space must be less than $650,000.

Town FR
1
=Commute
time[min]
FR
2
=Quality of
school[%]
FR
3
=Quality of
air[days]
FR
4
=Price
[10
3
$]
A 20 to 40 50 to 70 300 to 320 $450 to 550
B 20 to 30 50 to 75 340 to 350 $450 to 650
C 25 to 45 50 to 80 350 and up $600 to 800
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Town I
1
[bits] I
2
[bits] I
3
[bits] I
4
[bits] I
A 1.0 2.0 Infinite 0 Infinite
B 0 1.32 0 0 1.32
C 2.0 1.0 0 2.0 5.0
Figure 3.15. Probability distribution of
commuting time
Figure 3.16. Probability distribution of the
quality of schools
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If the range of air quality is expended from 340 days a year to 300
days a year,

Town A is acceptable, but town B still is best choice.

Town I
1
[bits] I
2
[bits] I
3
[bits] I
4
[bits] I
A 1.0 2.0 0 0 3
B 0 1.32 0 0 1.32
C 2.0 1.0 0 2.0 5.0
Then,
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5.3.6.1 Integration of DPs

The information contents can be made small by reducing the

likelihood of introducing errors when many physical parts are

assembled or by making the manufacturing operation simple.

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5.3.6.2 Integration of DPs
Examples)
Figure 3.17. Beverage can
Figure 3.18. Bottle and can opener
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Example 5. Faucet design(for integration)
Figure 3.19. Three valves Figure 3.20. Two valves
Figure 3.21. Two valves Figure 3.22. One valve
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6.1. Common mistake by Designers
Coupling due to insufficient number of DPs
In an ideal design, the number of FRs and the number of DPs are the same.

Not recognizing a decoupled design
The decoupled design must be changed according to the proper sequence.

Having more DPs than FRs
The redundant design must fix extra DPs.

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6.2. Common mistake by Designers
Not creating a robust design
- Not minimize the Information Content through
elimination of bias and reduction of variance

Concentrating on symptoms rather than cause
- Importance of establishing and concentrating on FRs

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Example 6.1. Hood Lock-and-Release Mechanism
Make undesirable sound.
Analyze current design.
Design an improved design
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Original Design
<Front view> <Top view>
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FR
1
= Hold the pin (attached to the hood) in the locked position
FR
2
= Release pin from locked position to an open position

C
1
= Noise level should not exceed 50 dB.
C
2
= Manufacturing cost cannot be more than current cost.

DP
1
= Mechanical locking mechanism
DP
2
= Release mechanism

)
`
=
)
`
2
1
2
1
0
0
DP
DP
X
X
FR
FR
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FR
1
= Hold the pin (attached to the hood) in the locked position

FR
11
= Locate the pin (attached to the hood) at the locked position.
FR
12
= Lock the pin.

DP
11
= A cam plate that provides a dead-stop position
DP
12
= Rotating cam plate with a slot for the pin and a cam profile to
engage a spring-loaded ratchet mechanism
(to keep the ratchet spring loaded against the cam surface)

)
`
=
)
`
12
11
12
11
0
0
DP
DP
X
X
FR
FR
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FR
2
= Release pin from locked position to an open position

FR
21
= Release the pin
FR
22
= Put the pin and the rotating disk at the normally open position

DP
21
= Ratchet-removing mechanism
DP
22
= Spring force at the hinge of the hood to pull the pin and rotate
the rotating locking disk out of the locked positions
(lets put a spring on the hood hinge)
)
`
=
)
`
22
21
22
21
0
0
DP
DP
X
X
FR
FR
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FR
22
= Put the pin and the rotating disk at the normally open position

FR
221
= Put the rotating disk at normally open position.
FR
222
= Put the pin at its normally open position.

DP
221
= Soft spring of the latch (that replaces the heavy spring)
DP
222
= Equilibrium position determined by the spring force on the hood
hinge and the weight of the hood

This design is a completely uncoupled design.
)
`
=
)
`
222
221
222
221
0
0
DP
DP
X
X
FR
FR
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The original design differs from this
proposed design in that it relies on the
heavy spring to unlock and push the
hood upward.

To provide enough energy to
accelerate the hood upward, a heavy
spring was used.

Then a stopper had to be placed on
the lock plate to stop the cam.
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Original design

FR
221
= Accelerate the pin (and hood) out of its closed position.
FR
222
= Put the cam plate at normally open position.

DP
221
= Heavy spring/cam plate
DP
222
= Stopper

The original design is a coupled design, but noise is made
because of the conversion of mechanical energy to acoustic
energy by the stopper.
)
`
=
)
`
222
221
222
221
0
DP
DP
X X
X
FR
FR
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7.1 Summary
The field of AD is a broad one that transcends specific
engineering fields and encompasses such areas as
management and business.

The basic concept of AD theory are presented as a scientific
base.

The basic concepts and methodologies of AD include the
concepts of domains, mapping, the two design axioms,
decomposition, hierarchy, and zigzagging.

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7.2 Summary
Several key terms, such as functional requirement (FR), design
parameter (DP), and process variable (PV) are defined. The
acceptance of these definitions is a pre-requisite in applying the
axiomatic principles for design.

Mapping between the domains generates design equations and
design matrices. The design equation models the relationship
between the design objectives (what the design is trying to
achieve) and the design features (how the design goals are to be
satisfied).

Uncoupled and decoupled designs are shown to satisfy the
Independence Axiom and thus are acceptable. Coupled designs
do not satisfy Independence Axiom and thus are unacceptable.
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7.3 Summary
The Independence Axiom states that the functional requirements
must be maintained independent of one another by choosing
appropriate design parameters.

The Information Axiom deals with information content, the
probability of satisfying the FRs, and complexity.

To be able to satisfy the functional requirements, the designer
must always think in terms of FRs before any solution is sought.

Robust design is a design that satisfies the functional
requirements easily, although large tolerances are given to DPs
and PVs.

Basic Concept of Axiomatic Design II: Prof. W. Hwang Dept. of Mechanical Engineering Postech

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