Monroe L.

Weber-Shirk
School of Civil and
Environmental Engineering
External Flows
CEE 331
May 30, 2013

Overview
The F
ss
connection to Drag
Boundary Layer Concepts
Drag
Shear Drag
Pressure Drag
Pressure Gradients: Separation and Wakes
Drag coefficients
Vortex Shedding
F
ss
: Shear and Pressure Forces
Shear forces:
viscous drag, frictional drag, or skin friction
caused by shear between the fluid and the solid
surface
function of ___________and ______of object
Pressure forces
pressure drag or form drag
caused by _____________from the body
function of area normal to the flow
surface area
length
flow separation
UU
UU
Major losses in pipes
Flow
expansion
losses
Projected area
Non-Uniform Flow
In pipes and channels the velocity distribution was
uniform (beyond a few pipe diameters or
hydraulic radii from the entrance or any flow
disturbance)
In external flows the boundary layer (the flow
influenced by the solid object) is always growing
and the flow is non-uniform
We need to calculate shear in this non-uniform
flow!
Boundary Layer Concepts
Two flow regimes
Laminar boundary layer
Turbulent boundary layer
with laminar sub-layer
Calculations of
boundary layer thickness
Shear (as a function of location on the surface)
Viscous Drag (by integrating the shear over the entire
surface)

Flat Plate: Parallel to Flow
U
x
y
U
U
U
o
t
o

Why is shear maximum at the leading edge of
the plate?
boundary
layer
thickness
shear
du
dy
is maximum
Laminar Boundary Layer:
Shear and Drag Force
5
Re
x
x
o
=
Re
x
Ux
v
=
Boundary Layer thickness increases with the _______
______ of the distance from the leading edge of the plate
x
U
3
0
332 . 0

t =
} }
= =
l l
d
dx
x
U
w dx w F
0
3
0
0
332 . 0

t
l U w F
d
3
664 . 0 =
5
x
U
v
o =
On one side of the plate!
Based on momentum and mass
conservation and assumed
velocity distribution
square
root
Integrate along length of plate
Laminar Boundary Layer:
Coefficient of Drag
2
2F
C (Re)
d
d
f
U A
= =
l U w F
d
3
664 . 0 =
lw U
l U w
d
2
3
) 664 . 0 ( 2
C

=
lw U
l U w
d
2
3
328 . 1
C

=
Ul
d

328 . 1
C =
1.328
C
Re
d
l
=
Re
l
Ul
v
=
Dimensional analysis
Transition to Turbulence
The boundary layer becomes turbulent when
the Reynolds number is approximately
500,000 (based on length of the plate)
The length scale that really controls the
transition to turbulence is the
_________________________
5
Re
x
x
o
=
Re
x
Ux
v
= Re
U
o
o
v
=
Re
Re
x
x
o
o
=
Re 5 Re
x o
=
boundary layer thickness
Re
o
= 3500
=
Transition to Turbulence
U
x
y
U
U
o
t
o

U
turbulent
Viscous
sublayer
This slope (du/dy) controls t
0
.
Transition (analogy to pipe flow)
more rapidly
Turbulent Boundary Layer:
(Smooth Plates)
1/ 5
0.37
Re
x
x
o
=
5 / 1
2
0
029 . 0
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
Ux
U
v
t
5 / 1
2
0
0
036 . 0
|
|
.
|

\
|
= =
}
Ul
wl U dx w F
l
d
v
t
1/ 5
C 0.072Re
d l

=
2
2F
C Re,
d
d
f
U A l
c

| |
= =
|
\ .
Re
x
Ux
v
=
5 / 1
5 / 4
37 . 0
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
U
x
v
o
Derived from momentum conservation
and assumed velocity distribution
Integrate shear over plate
Grows ____________ than laminar
5 x 10
5
< Re
l
< 10
7

x 5/4
Boundary Layer Thickness
Water flows over a flat plate at 1 m/s. How long is the laminar region?
Re
x
Ux
v
=
Re
x
x
U
v
=
s m
s m x
x
/ 1
) 000 , 500 ( / 10 1
2 6
=
0
0.002
0.004
0.006
0.008
0.01
0.012
0.014
0.016
0.018
0.02
0 0.5 1 1.5 2
length along plate (m)
b
o
u
n
d
a
r
y

l
a
y
e
r

t
h
i
c
k
n
e
s
s

(
m
)



.
-
200,000
400,000
600,000
800,000
1,000,000
1,200,000
1,400,000
1,600,000
1,800,000
2,000,000
R
e
y
n
o
l
d
s

N
u
m
b
e
r
laminar
turbulent
Reynolds Number
Grand Coulee
x = 0.5 m
5 / 1
5 / 4
37 . 0
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
U
x
v
o
5
x
U
v
o =
Flat Plate Drag Coefficients
0.001
0.01
1
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
Re
l
Ul
v
=
l
e
f
d
C
1 x 10
-3
5 x 10
-4
2 x 10
-4
1 x 10
-4
5 x 10
-5
2 x 10
-5
1 x 10
-5
5 x 10
-6
2 x 10
-6
1 x 10
-6
( )
2.5
1.89 1.62log /
f
d
C l c

( =

( )
0.5
1.328
Re
f
d
l
C =
( )
2.58
0.455 1700
Re
log Re
f
d
l
l
C =
(

( )
2.58
0.455
log Re
f
d
l
C =
(

0.2
0.072Re
f
d l
C

=
laminar
transitional
Turbulent boundary
rough
Example: Solar Car
Solar cars need to be as efficient as
possible. They also need a large surface
area for the (smooth) solar array. Estimate
the power required to counteract the
viscous drag on the solar panel at 40 mph
Dimensions: L: 5.9 m W: 2 m H: 1 m
Max. speed: 40 mph on solar power alone
Solar Array: 1200 W peak
v
air
= 14.6 x10
-6
m
2
/s

air
= 1.22 kg/m
3

Viscous Drag on Ships
The viscous drag on ships can be calculated
by assuming a flat plate with the wetted
area and length of the ship

f
wav d d e
F F F = +
A U
d
d
2
F 2
C

=
Re
l
Ul
v
=
L
r
3
F
wave
scales with ____ (based on _______ similarity)
2
C
F
2
f
d
d
U A
=
0.001
0.01
1
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
Froude
Separation and Wakes
Separation often occurs at sharp corners
fluid cant accelerate to go around a sharp
corner
Velocities in the Wake are ______ (relative
to the free stream velocity)
Pressure in the Wake is relatively ________
(determined by the pressure in the adjacent
flow)
small
constant
UU
Pressure Gradients: Separation
and Wakes
Van Dyke, M. 1982. An Album of Fluid Motion. Stanford:
Parabolic Press.
Diverging streamlines
Adverse Pressure Gradients
Increasing pressure in direction of flow
Fluid is being decelerated
Fluid in boundary layer has less ______
than the main flow and may be completely
stopped.
If boundary layer stops flowing then
separation occurs
inertia
Streamlines diverge behind object
2
2
p V
z C
g
+ + =
Point of Separation
Predicting the point of separation on smooth
bodies is beyond the scope of this course.
Expect separation to occur where
streamlines are diverging (flow is slowing
down)
Separation can be expected to occur around
any sharp corners
(where streamlines diverge rapidly)
Flat Plate:
Streamlines
U
0
1
2
3
4
|
|
.
|

\
|

= =
2
0
2
2
2 1
U
p p
U
v
C
p

Point v C
p
p
1 ______ ________ ____
2 ______ ________ ____
3 ______ ________ ____
4 ______ ________ ____
0
C
p
= 1
<U
0 < C
p
< 1
>U C
p
< 0
>p
0

>p
0

<p
0

<p
0

Points outside boundary layer!
<U
C
p
< 0
p in wake is uniform
Application of Bernoulli
Equation
g
v
p
g
U
p
2 2
2 2
0
+ = +

|
|
.
|

\
|

=
2
0
2
2
2 1
U
p p
U
v

In air pressure change due to

elevation is small
U = velocity of body relative to fluid
2 2
1 1 2 2
1 2
2 2
p v p v
z z
g g
+ + = + +

0
2 2
2 2
p p
g
v
g
U
=
p
C =
Flat Plate:
Pressure Distribution
|
|
.
|

\
|

= =
2
0
2
2
2 1
U
p p
U
v
C
p

1 0 -1 -1.2
rear front
d d d
F F F + =
( )A p p F
rear front d
=
( ) A
U
C C F
rear front
p p d
2
2

=
C
p

|
|
.
|

\
|

=
2
0
2
U
p p
C
p

0
2
2
p p
C U
p
=

0.8
( ) A
U
F
d
2
2 . 1 8 . 0
2

+ =
C
d
= 2
0
<U
>U
1
2
3
Front of plate
Back of plate
Bicycle page at Princeton
Drag Coefficient of Blunt and
Streamlined Bodies
Drag dominated by viscous
drag, the body is __________.
Drag dominated by pressure
drag, the body is _______.
Whether the flow is viscous-
drag dominated or pressure-
drag dominated depends
entirely on the shape of the
body.
This drag coefficient is
calculated from a measured
value of ____

streamlined
bluff
Flat plate
A U
d
d
2
F 2
C

=
Fss
Drag Coefficient at High
Reynolds Numbers
Figures 9.28-9.30 bodies with drag
coefficients on p 593-595 in text.
hemispherical shell 0.38
hemispherical shell 1.42
cube 1.1
parachute 1.4
Why?
Vs
?
Velocity at
separation point
determines pressure
in wake.
The same!!!
SUVs have got Drag
Ford Explorer 2002 C
d
= 0.41
2
2
C
d
Drag
U A
=
2
C
2
d
U A
Drag

=
Automobile Drag Coefficients
(High Reynolds Number)
C
d
= 0.32
Height = 1.539 m
Width = 1.775 m
Length = 4.351 m
Ground clearance = 15 cm
100 kW at 6000 rpm
Max speed is 124 mph

Calculate the power required to overcome drag at 60 mph and 120 mph.
Where does separation occur?
What is the projected area?
( )
A H G W ~
( )
2
1.539 0.15 1.775 2.5 A m m m m = =
Electric Vehicles
Electric vehicles are designed to minimize drag.
Typical cars have a coefficient drag of 0.30-0.40.
The EV1 has a drag coefficient of 0.19.

Smooth connection to windshield
Plan view of car?
Velocity and Drag: Spheres
C , Re, , ,
d
f shape orientation
D
c
| |
=
|
\ .
M
2
2F
C
d
d
U A
=
( )
2
2F
C Re
d
d
f
U A
= =
2
C
F
2
d
d
U A
=
Spheres only have one shape and orientation!
General relationship for
submerged objects
Where C
d
is a function of Re
Sphere Terminal Fall Velocity
ma F =

2
2F
C
d
d
U A
=
0 = + W F F
b d
g W
p p
=
2
2
t
d d P w
V
F C A =
3
3
4
r
p
t =
2
r A
p
t =
W
d
F
b
F
g F
w p b
=
velocity terminal particle
t coefficien drag
gravity to due on accelerati
density water
density particle
area sectional cross particle
volume particle
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
t
D
w
p
p
p
V
C
g

A
Sphere Terminal Fall Velocity
(continued)
b d
F W F =
2
( )
2
t
d P w p p w
V
C A g =
2
2 ( )

p p w
t
d P w
g
V
C A

=
d
A
p
p
3
2
=

( )
2
4

3
p w
t
d w
gd
V
C

=
( )
4

3
p w
t
d w
gd
V
C

=
General equation for falling objects
Relationship valid for spheres
Drag Coefficient on a Sphere
0.1
1
10
100
1000
0.1 1 10 10
2
10
3
10
4
10
5
10
6
10
7

Reynolds Number
D
r
a
g

C
o
e
f
f
i
c
i
e
n
t

Stokes Law
24
Re
d
C =
Re=500000
Turbulent Boundary Layer
Drag Coefficient for a Sphere:
Terminal Velocity Equations
Laminar flow R < 1
Transitional flow 1 < R < 10
4
Fully turbulent flow R > 10
4
24
Re
d
C =
Re
t
V d

=
( )

18
2
w p
t
g d
V

=
( )
0.3
p w
t
w
gd
V

~ 0.4
d
C ~
( )
4

3
p w
t
d w
gd
V
C

=
Valid for laminar and turbulent
Example Calculation of Terminal
Velocity
Determine the terminal settling velocity of a
cryptosporidium oocyst having a diameter of 4 m
and a density of 1.04 g/cm
3
in water at 15C.
( ) ( )( )
|
|
.
|

\
|

m s
kg
1.14x10 18
kg/m 99 9 kg/m 1040 m/s 1 8 9. m 4x10

3
3 3 2
2
6
t
V
( )

18
2
w p
t
g d
V

=
m s
kg
1.14x10
m 4x10
m/s 1 8 9.
kg/m 99 9
kg/m 1040
3
6
2
3
3

=
=
=
=
=

d
g

w
p
m/s 10 14 . 3
7
= x V
t
cm/day 7 . 2 =
t
V
Reynolds
Drag on a Golf Ball
Drag on a golf ball comes mainly from pressure
drag. The only practical way of reducing
pressure drag is to design the ball so that the
point of separation moves back further on the
ball.
The golf ball's dimples increase the turbulence
in the boundary layer, increase the _______ of
the boundary layer, and delay the onset of
separation.
What is the Reynolds number where the
boundary layer begins to become turbulent with
a golf ball? _________
Why not use this for aircraft or cars?

inertia
40,000
Boundary layer is already turbulent
At what velocity is the boundary
layer laminar for an automobile?
Re
l
Ul
v
=
2
5
1.5 10
air
m
x
s
v

=
Re
l
U
l
v
=
4 l m =
Re 500, 000
l
=
( )
( )
2
5
1.5 10 500000
1.9 / 6.8 /
4
m
x
s
U m s km hr
m

| |
|
\ .
= = =
Effect of Turbulence Levels on
Drag
Flow over a sphere with a trip wire.

Point of separation
Causes boundary layer to become turbulent
Re=15,000
Re=30,000
Effect of Boundary Layer
Transition
Ideal (non
viscous) fluid
Real (viscous)
fluid: laminar
boundary layer
Real (viscous)
fluid: turbulent
boundary layer
No shear!
Increased inertia in
boundary layer
Spinning Spheres
What happens to the separation points if
we start spinning the sphere?
LIFT!
Vortex Shedding
Vortices are shed alternately
from each side of a cylinder
The separation point and thus the
resultant drag force oscillates
Frequency of shedding (n) given
by Strouhal number S
S is approximately 0.2 over a
wide range of Reynolds numbers
(100 - 1,000,000)
U
nd
S =
Summary: External Flows
Spatially varying flows
boundary layer growth
Example: Spillways
Two sources of drag (F
ss
)
shear (surface area of object)
pressure (projected area of object)
Separation and Wakes
Interaction of viscous drag and adverse pressure
gradient
Challenge
Im going on vacation and I cant back all
of our luggage in my Matrix. Should I put it
on the roof rack or on the hitch?
2
C
2
d
U A
Drag

=
Challenges
How long would L have to be to double the
drag of a sphere?
L
V=30 m/s D = 3 m
2
C
2
d
U A
Drag

=
Challenges
How long would L have to be
to double the drag of a sphere?
L V=30 m/s
D = 3 m
2
C
2
d
U A
Drag

=
Find drag of sphere
Guess at Re for plate
Find drag coefficient for plate
(note different area)
Solve for L 0.001
0.01
1
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
v 14.610
6

m
2
s
:=
Re 6.164 10
6
=
Re
VD
v
:=
Elongated sphere
L V=30 m/s
D = 3 m
A
2 Drag
C
.dplat e
V
2

:=
Drag
L
2 Drag
C
.dplat e
V
2
t D
:=
Drag
L
2 C
.dsphere
V
2
t D
2

|
\
|
.

8C
.dplat e
V
2
t D
:=
C
.dsphere
L
C
.dsphere
D
( )
4C
.dplat e
:=
C
.dsphere
Drag
C
.dsphere
V
2
t D
2

8
:=
C
.dsphere
C
.dsphere
0.2 :=
C
.dplate
0.003 :=
L 50 m =
Solution: Solar Car
A U
d
d
2
F 2
C

=
v
Ul
R
x
=
2
C
F
2
A U
d
d

=
( )( )( ) ( )
2
3 3 2
3 10 1.22 / 17.88 / 11.88
F 2
2
d
x kg m m s m

=
U = 17.88 m/s
l = 5.9 m
v
air
= 14.6 x 10
-6
m
2
/s
Re
l
= 7.2 x 10
6

C
d
= 3 x 10
-3

air
= 1.22 kg/m
3

A = 5.9 m x 2 m = 11.8 m
2

F
d
=14 N
P =F*U=250 W
( ) | |
2.58
0.455
log Re
f
d
l
C =
0.001
0.01
1
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
Reynolds Number Check
R<<1 and therefore in Stokes Law range

Vd
R =
( )( )( )
m s
kg
1.14x10
kg/m 999 m 10 4 m/s 10 14 . 3
3
3 6 7

x x
R
R = 1.1 x 10
-6

Solution: Power a Toyota Matrix
at 60 or 120 mph
2
2F
C (Re)
d
d
f
U A
= =
2
C
F
2
d
d
U A
=
2
C
3
A U
P
d

=
3 3 2
(0.32)(1.2 / )(26.82 / ) (2.5 )
2
kg m m s m
P =
P = 9.3 kW at 60 mph
P = 74 kW at 120 mph
Grand Coulee Dam
Turbulent boundary layer reaches surface!
Reflections on Drag
What are 3 similarities with Moody
diagram?
Laminar
Smooth
Rough
Why 2 curves for smooth (red and
green)
Fully turbulent boundary layer
Transition between laminar and turbulent on
the plate
Why more detail in transition region
here than in Moody diagram?
Are any lines missing on the graph?
0.001
0.01
1
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
Function of conditions
at leading edge
Drexel SunDragon IV
Vehicle ID: SunDragon IV (# 76)
Dimensions: L: 19.2 ft. (5.9 m) W: 6.6 ft. (2 m) H: 3.3 ft. (1 m)
Weight: 550 lbs. (249 kg)
Solar Array: 1200 W peak; 8 square meters terrestrial grade solar cells;
manf: ASE Americas
Batteries: 6.2 kW capacity lead-acid batteries; manf: US Battery
Motor: 10 hp (7.5 kW) brushless DC; manf: Unique Mobility
Range: Approximately 200 miles (at 35 mph on batteries alone)
Max. speed: 40 mph on solar power alone, 80 mph on solar and battery
power.
Chassis: Graphite monocoque (Carbon fiber, Kevlar, structural glass,
Nomex)
Wheels: Three 26 in (66 cm) mountain bike, custom hubs
Brakes: Hydraulic disc brakes, regenerative braking (motor)


http://cbis.ece.drexel.edu/SunDragon/Cars.html