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Overview of Control System Design

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1. Safety. It is imperative that industrial plants operate safely
so as to promote the well-being of people and equipment
within the plant and in the nearby communities. Thus, plant
safety is always the most important control objective and is
the subject of Section 10.5.
2. Environmental Regulations. Industrial plants must comply
with environmental regulations concerning the discharge of
gases, liquids, and solids beyond the plant boundaries.
3. Product Specifications and Production Rate. In order to be
profitable, a plant must make products that meet
specifications concerning product quality and production
rate.
General Requirements

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4. Economic Plant Operation. It is an economic reality that the
plant operation over long periods of time must be profitable.
Thus, the control objectives must be consistent with the
economic objectives.
5. Stable Plant Operation. The control system should facilitate
smooth, stable plant operation without excessive oscillation in
key process variables. Thus, it is desirable to have smooth,
rapid set-point changes and rapid recovery from plant
disturbances such as changes in feed composition.
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Steps in Control System Design
After the control objectives have been formulated, the control
system can be designed. The design procedure consists of three
main steps:
1. Select controlled, manipulated, and measured variables.
2. Choose the control strategy (multiloop control vs.
multivariable control) and the control structure
(e.g., pairing of controlled and manipulated variables).
3. Specify controller settings.
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Control Strategies
Multiloop Control:
Each output variable is controlled using a single input
variable.
Multivariable Control:
Each output variable is controlled using more than one
input variable.
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The degrees of freedom N
F
is the number or process variables
that must be specified in order to be able to determine the
remaining process variables.
If a dynamic model of the process is available, N
F
can be
determined from a relation that was introduced in Chapter 2,
(13-1)
F V E
N N N =
where N
V
is the total number of process variables, and N
E
is the
number of independent equations.
13.1 Degrees of Freedom for Process Control
The important concept of degrees of freedom was introduced in
Section 2.3, in connection with process modeling.
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For process control applications, it is very important to determine
the maximum number of process variables that can be
independently controlled, that is, to determine the control degrees
of freedom, N
FC
:
In order to make a clear distinction between N
F
and N
FC
, we will
refer to N
F
as the model degrees of freedom and N
FC
as the
control degrees of freedom.
Note that N
F
and N
FC
are related by the following equation,
Definition. The control degrees of freedom, N
FC
, is the
number of process variables (e.g., temperatures, levels,
flow rates, compositions) that can be independently
controlled.
(13-2)
F FC D
N N N = +
where N
D
is the number of disturbance variables (i.e., input
variables that cannot be manipulated.)
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Example 13.1
General Rule. For many practical control problems, the
control degrees of freedom N
FC
is equal to the number of
independent material and energy streams that can be
manipulated.
Determine N
F
and N
FC
for the steam-heated, stirred-tank system
modeled by Eqs. 2-50 2-52 in Chapter 2. Assume that only the
steam pressure P
s
can be manipulated.
Solution
In order to calculate N
F
from Eq. 13-1, we need to determine N
V

and N
E
. The dynamic model in Eqs. 2-50 2-52 contains three
equations (N
E
= 3) and six process variables (N
V
= 6): T
s
, P
s
, w, T
i
,
T, and T
w
. Thus, N
F
= 6 3 = 3.
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Figure 13.1 Two examples where all three process
streams cannot be manipulated independently.
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Stirred-Tank Heating Process
Figure 2.3 Stirred-tank heating process with constant holdup, V.
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If the feed temperature T
i
and mass flow rate w are considered to
be disturbance variables, N
D
= 2 and thus N
FC
= 1 from
Eq. (13-2).
It would be reasonable to use this single degree of freedom to
control temperature T by manipulating steam pressure, P
s
.
The blending system in Fig. 13.3 has a bypass stream that allows a
fraction f of inlet stream w
2
to bypass the stirred tank. It is
proposed that product composition x be controlled by adjusting f
via the control valve. Analyze the feasibility of this control
scheme by considering its steady-state and dynamic
characteristics.
In your analysis, assume that x
1
is the principal disturbance and
that x
2
, w
1
, and w
2
are constant. Variations in the volume of liquid
in the tank can be neglected because w
2
<< w
1
.
Example 13.2
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Figure 13.3. Blending system with bypass line.
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Solution
The dynamic characteristics of the proposed control scheme are
quite favorable because the product composition x responds
rapidly to a change in the bypass flow rate.
In order to evaluate the steady-state characteristics, consider a
component balance over the entire system:
Solving for the controlled variable gives,
1 1 2 2
(13-3) w x w x wx + =
1 1 2 2
(13-4)
w x w x
x
w
+
=
Thus depends on the value of the disturbance variable and
four constants (w
1
, w
2
, x
2
, and w).
But it does not depend on the bypass function, f.
x
1
x
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Thus, it is not possible to compensate for sustained disturbances
in x
1
by adjusting f.
For this reason, the proposed control scheme is not feasible.
Because f does not appear in (13-4), the steady-state gain
between x and f is zero. Thus, although the bypass flow rate can
be adjusted, it does not provide a control degree of freedom.
However, if w
2
could also be adjusted, then manipulating both f
and w
2
could produce excellent control of the product
composition.
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Effect of Feedback Control
Next we consider the effect of feedback control on the control
degrees of freedom.
In general, adding a feedback controller (e.g., PI or PID) assigns
a control degree of freedom because a manipulated variable is
adjusted by the controller.
However, if the controller set point is continually adjusted by a
higher-level (or supervisory) control system, then neither N
F
nor
N
FC
change.
To illustrate this point, consider the feedback control law for a
standard PI controller:
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where e(t) = y
sp
(t) y(t) and y
sp
is the set point. We consider two
cases:
( ) ( ) ( )
0
1
1
(10-5)

t
c
u t u K e t e d
(
= + +
(

}
Case 1. The set point is constant, or only adjusted manually on an
infrequent basis.
For this situation, y
sp
is considered to be a parameter instead of a
variable.
Introduction of the control law adds one equation but no new
variables because u and y are already included in the process
model.
Thus, N
E
increases by one, N
V
is unchanged, and Eqs. 10-1 and
10-2 indicate that N
F
and N
FC
decrease by one.
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Case 2. The set point is adjusted frequently by a higher level
controller.
Guideline 1.
All variables that are not self-regulating must be controlled.

Guideline 2.
Choose output variables that must be kept within equipment and
operating constraints (e.g., temperatures, pressures, and
compositions).
Selection of Controlled Variables
The set point is now considered to be a variable. Consequently,
the introduction of the control law adds one new equation and
one new variable, y
sp
.
Equations 13-1 and 13-2 indicate that N
F
and N
FC
do not change.
The importance of this conclusion will be more apparent when
cascade control is considered in Chapter 16.
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Figure 13.3 General representation of a control problem.
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Guideline 3.
Select output variables that are a direct measure of product
quality (e.g., composition, refractive index) or that strongly affect
it (e.g., temperature or pressure).

Guideline 4.
Choose output variables that seriously interact with other
controlled variables.

Guideline 5.
Choose output variables that have favorable dynamic and static
characteristics.
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Guideline 6.
Select inputs that have large effects on controlled variables.

Guideline 7.
Choose inputs that rapidly affect the controlled variables.

Guideline 8.
The manipulated variables should affect the controlled variables
directly rather than indirectly.

Guideline 9.
Avoid recycling of disturbances.
Selection of Manipulated Variables
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Guideline 10.
Reliable, accurate measurements are essential for good control.

Guideline 11.
Select measurement points that have an adequate degree of
sensitivity.

Guideline 12.
Select measurement points that minimize time delays and time
constants

Selection of Measured Variables
Example 13.4: Evaporator Control
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Figure 13.5 Schematic diagram of an evaporator.

MVs: P
s
, B and D DVs: x
F
and F
CVs: ??

Case (a): x
B
can be measured
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Case (b): ): x
B
cannot be measured
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Distillation Column Control
(a 5 x 5 control problem)
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Challenges for Distillation Control
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1. There can be significant interaction between process
variables.

2. The column behavior can be very nonlinear, especially for
high purity separations.

3. Distillation columns often have very slow dynamics.

4. Process constraints are important.

5. Product compositions are often not measured.

cf. Distillation Process Control Module (Appendix E)
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Process Control Module:
Fired-Tube Furnace
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The major gaseous combustion reactions in the furnace are:

4 2 2
2 2
3
CH O CO 2H O
2
1
CO O CO
2
+ +
+
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Process Control Module: Fired-Tube Furnace
Table 3.1
Key Process Variables for the PCM Furnace Module

Measured Output Variables Disturbance Variables
HC outlet temperature HC inlet temperature
Furnace temperature HC flow rate
Flue gas (exhaust gas) flow rate Inlet air temperature
O
2
exit concentration FG temperature
FG purity (CH
4

Manipulated Variables concentration)
Air flow rate
FG flow rate

Control Objectives for the Furnace

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1. To heat the hydrocarbon stream to a desired exit
temperature

2. To avoid unsafe conditions due to the
interruption of fuel gas or hydrocarbon feed

3. To operate the furnace economically by
maintaining an optimum air-fuel ratio.
Safety Considerations?

Control Strategies?
Catalytic Converters for Automobiles

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Three-way catalytic converters (TWC) are designed to
reduce three types of harmful automobile emissions:
1. carbon monoxide (CO),
2. unburned hydrocarbons in the fuel (HC)
3. nitrogen oxides (NO
x
).
Desired oxidation reactions (1000-1500 F, residence
times of ~ 0.05 s):




n 2n+2 2 2 2
2 2
3 1
C H ( ) O CO +(n+1) H O
2
1
CO O CO
2
n
n
+
+
+
Desired reduction reaction:
x 2 2
2NO O +N x
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Figure 13.10 TWC efficiency as a function of air-
to-fuel ratio (Guzzella, 2008).
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TWC Control Strategy
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Plasma Etching in Semiconductor Manufacturing
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Pre-process Measurement
Integrated
Metrology
Etch Process
Integrated
Metrology
Resist
BARC
Polysilicon
Silicon
Substrate
Oxide
Gate oxide
Resist
BARC
Polysilicon
Oxide
Gate oxide

in
CD
in
CD
in
Silicon
Substrate
Post-process Measurement

out

in
(center)
CD
in
(center, edge)

out
(center)
CD
out
(center, edge)
Figure 13.12 Inputs and outputs for polysilicon gate etch process in semiconductor manufacturing.
The measured inputs (CD
in
and
in
) in the incoming wafer can be used in feedforward control, while
the measured outputs (CD
out
and
out
) are used in feedback control. BARC is bottom anti-reflective
coating.