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Chapter 2 Environmental Systems

Earth is a single interconnected system. It is all a matter of scale:

All environmental systems consist of matter.

Matter
Matter: anything that occupies space and has mass. It is the stuff that makes up the universe. Mass: a measure of the amount of matter an object contains. Weight: the force that results from the action of gravity on mass.

Atoms and Molecules

Atom: the smallest particle that can contain the chemical properties of an element. Element: a substance composed of atoms that cannot be broken down into smaller, simpler, and different components. Elements can exist as solids, liquids or gases. Periodic Table: lists in an organized fashion all the elements currently known. Molecules: particles containing more than one atom.

Atoms and Molecules

Compounds: molecules that contain more than one element. Atomic number: the number of protons in the nucleus of a particular element. Mass number: the total number of protons and neutrons in an element. Isotopes: atoms of the same element that have different numbers of neutrons, and

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Radioactivity
Radioactive decay: the spontaneous release of material from the nucleus of an unstable isotope. Radioactive decay changes the radioactive element into a different element. For example, Uranium-235 decays to form Thorium-231. Uranium is called the parent and Thorium the daughter.

Radioactivity
Half-life is the time it takes for one-half of the original radioactive parent atoms to decay. Some elements that undergo radioactive decay emit radiation harmful to living things. Knowledge of the half-life allows scientists to determine the length of time that a radioactive element may be

Chemical Bonds
Covalent bonds: elements that form compounds by sharing electrons.

Chemical Bonds
Ionic bonds: elements that form compounds by transferring electrons from one element to another. When this transfer happens, one atom becomes electron deficient (positively charged) and one atom becomes electron rich (negatively charged).

Chemical Bonds

Chemical Bonds
Hydrogen bonds: a weak chemical bond that forms when hydrogen atoms that are covalently bonded to one atom are attracted to another atom on a different molecule. Water is known as a polar molecule. One side of the molecule is more positive and the other side is more negative.

Chemical Bonds

The polarity of the water molecule allows it to form hydrogen bonds.

Properties of Water
Surface tension: the result from the cohesion between water molecules at the surface of a body of water. Capillary action: when adhesion of water molecules to a surface is stronger than cohesion between the molecules.

Properties of Water
Boiling and freezing: at sea level, pure water boils at 100 C and freezes at 0 C. Water as a solvent: many substances dissolve well in water because their polar molecules bond easily with the polar water molecules. Water changes properties very slowly. A good insulator.

Properties of Water
Why does ice float in water? Water is at its maximum density at 4 C. When water freezes at 0 C, the resulting ice is less dense than the water around it, and floats.

Properties of Water

Acids, Bases, and pH

An important property of water is its ability to dissolve hydrogen or hydroxide compounds known as acids and bases. Acid: a substance that contributes hydrogen ions (H+) to a solution.
Nitric acid (HNO3) and Sulfuric Acid (H2SO4)

Base: a substance that contributes hydroxide ions (OH )

Acids, Bases, and pH

pH is a way to indicate the strength of acids and bases. The pH scales ranges from 0 14. pH 7 is neutral pH above 7 is basic pH below 7 is acidic pH 0 is the most acidic value, and pH 14 is the most basic.

Acids, Bases, and pH

The pH scale is a logarithmic scale. A change of 1 pH unit (e.g., from pH 5 to pH 4) means there has been a 10-fold (101) change in acidity. A change of two pH units (e.g., from pH 5 to pH 3) indicates there has been a 100-fold (102) change in acidity.

Acids, Bases, and pH

Chemical Reactions and the Conservation of Matter

Chemical reaction: occurs when atoms separate from the molecules of which they are a part or recombine with other molecules. Law of Conservation of Matter: matter cannot be created or destroyed; it can only change form.
This includes dangerous pollutants metals, PCBs, CFCs etc.

Biological Molecules and Cells

Inorganic compounds: compounds that do not contain carbon or do contain carbon, but only carbon bound to elements other than hydrogen. For example, NH3, NaCl, H2O, and CO2 Organic compounds: compounds that have carbon-carbon and carbonhydrogen bonds. Important to all living

Biological Molecules and Cells

Carbohydrates: compounds composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen atoms. For example, C6H12O6. Proteins: made up of long chains of nitrogen-containing organic molecules called amino acids.

Biological Molecules and Cells

Nucleic Acids: organic compounds found in all living cells. DNA RNA Lipids: biological molecules that do not mix with water. For example, fats, oils, waxes, and steroid hormones.

Green algae

All organisms are composed of cells; single cellular or multi cellular.

Mono brine shrimp

Energy is a fundamental component of all environmental systems.

Energy and Energy Units

Energy is the ability to do work.

Energy and Energy Units

Energy is the ability to do work. Power is the rate at which work is done. energy = power time

Forms of Energy
Kinetic energy: energy of motion. Potential energy: stored energy. Chemical energy: potential energy contained in chemical bonds. Temperature: the measure of the average kinetic energy of the atoms and molecules making up a substance.

First Law of Thermodynamics

Energy is neither created nor destroyed. You cant get something from nothing.

Chemical Reactions Reflect the First Law

Energy and Mass are Conserved:
light

6 CO2 + 6 H2O
Reactants 6 Carbon atoms atoms 12 Hydrogen atoms atoms 18 Oxygen atoms atoms

C6H12O6 + 6 O2
Products 6 Carbon 12 Hydrogen 18 Oxygen

Second Law of Thermodynamics

When energy is transformed, the quantity of energy remains the same, but its ability to do work diminishes.

Second Law of Thermodynamics

Energy efficiency: the ratio of the amount of work that is done to the total amount of energy that is introduced into the system.

Energy Efficiency which is more efficient?

Second Law of Thermodynamics

Energy quality: the ease with which an energy source can be used for work. Entropy: all systems move toward randomness rather than toward order. Randomness is always increasing in a system, unless new energy from the outside of the system

Energy conversions underlie all ecological processes. Original source is almost always the sun, what are some exceptions?

deep-ocean vent

deep-ocean squid

Energy flows into ecosystems from the sun and the movement of wind and water.

System analysis shows how matter and energy flow in the environment: Open versus Closed Systems

 Open system: exchanges of matter or energy occur across system boundaries. Closed system: matter and energy exchanges across system boundaries do not occur.

Steady States
Steady state: in a system, when input equals output, it is said to be in a steady state.

Natural systems change across space and time.

Steady States
Negative feedback loops: when a system responds to change by returning to its original state, or at least by decreasing the rate at which the change is occurring. Positive feedback loops: when a system responds to change by increasing the rate at which the change is occurring.

Natural Systems Change across Time and Space

Throughout Earths history, natural changes have had large effects on complex systems, but human activities have increased both the pace and the intensity of these natural environmental changes . . .

Review Questions
1. Name some examples of environmental systems. 1. What is the difference between an atom and a molecule? 1. If a radioactive sample, with a half-life of 7 years, has 500 radioactive atoms to start with, how many radioactive

Review Questions
1. What is the difference between a covalent and an ionic bond? 5. Why does ice float on water? 6. Distinguish an acid from a base. 1. The pH scale runs from 0 to

Review Questions
1. List the four major classes of organic molecules. 1. Observations that atoms are neither created nor destroyed in chemical reactions led to the formulation of the Law of __________ of _______.

Review Questions
1. Energy is the ability to do ______. 1. Define the First Law of Thermodynamics (Energy). 1. The Second Law of Thermodynamics tell us that when energy is transformed, its ability to do _______ is diminished.

Review Questions
1. How do potential and kinetic energy differ? 1. Give an example of how an organism can change one form of energy into another. 1. How does an open system differ from a closed system?