Chapter 2 Control Loop Hardware and Troubleshooting

Overall Course Objectives

Develop the skills necessary to function as an industrial process control engineer.
Skills
Tuning loops Control loop design Control loop troubleshooting Command of the terminology

Fundamental understanding
Process dynamics Feedback control

Control Relevant Aspects of Control Loop Hardware

Necessary for control loop troubleshooting:
To determine if each subsystem (control computer, actuator system, and sensor system) is functioning properly To understand the proper design and operation of all the components that make-up each of the subsystems of a control loop

Control Diagram of a Typical Control Loop

Actuator System

F1 T1

F2 T2
Sensor System

Controller

TC TT

T F

Components and Signals of a Typical Control Loop

Actuator System

F1 T1
3-15 psig

F2 T2
Thermowell

T F
Air I/P 4-20 mA D/A Thermocouple millivolt signal

Operator Console

Tsp

DCS Control Computer Controller

A/D

4-20 mA

Transmitter

Sensor System

Controllers/Control Computers
Pneumatic controllers Electronic analog controllers Supervisory control computers Distributed Control Systems (DCS) Fieldbus technology

Pneumatic Controllers - Phase I

Introduced in the 1920s Installed in the field next to the valve Use bellows, baffles, and nozzles with an air supply to implement PID action. Provided automatic control and replaced manual control for many loops

Pneumatic Controllers - Phase II

Transmitter type pneumatic controllers began to replace field mounted controllers in the late 1930s. Controller located in control room with pneumatic transmission from sensors to control room and back to the valve. Allowed operators to address a number of controllers from a centralized control room.

Pneumatic Controller Installation

F1 T1
3-15 psig

F2 T2
Thermowell

F T
Thermocouple millivolt signal 3-15 psig Transmitter Air

Air Tsp

Pnuematic Controller

Electronic Analog Controllers

Became available in the late 1950s. Replaced the pneumatic tubing with wires. Used resistors, capacitors, and transistors based amplifiers to implement PID action. Out sold pneumatic controllers by 1970. Allowed for advanced PID control: ratio, feedforward, etc.

Electronic Controller Installation

F1 T1
3-15 psig Air

F2 T2
Thermowell

I/P

F T
Thermocouple millivolt signal 4-20 mA Transmitter

4-20 mA

Tsp

Electronic Controller

Computer Control System

Based upon a mainframe digital computer. Offered the ability to use data storage and retrieval, alarm functions, and process optimization. First installed on a refinery in 1959. Had reliability limitations.

Supervisory Control Computer

Video Display Unit Alarming Functions Printer

Supervisory Control Computer

Analog Control Subsytem

Interfacing Hardware

Data Storage Acquisition System

...

Distributed Control System- DCS

Introduced in the late 1970s. Based upon redundant microprocessors for performing control functions for a part of the plant. SUPERIOR RELIABILITY Less expensive per loop for large plants. Less expensive to expand. Facilitates the use of advanced control.

DCS Architecture
System Consoles Host Computer Data Storage Unit PLC

Data Highway (Shared Communication Facilities)

Local Console

Local Control Unit

......

Local Control Unit 4-20 mA

Local Console

4-20 mA

Process Transmitters and Actuators

DCS and Troubleshooting

The data storage and trending capability of a DCS greatly facilitate troubleshooting control problems. That is, the sources of process upsets can many times be tracked down through the process by trending a group of process measurements until the source of the process upset is located.

Control Relevant Aspects of a DCS

The most important control aspect of a DCS is the cycle time for controller calls. The shortest cycles times are typically around 0.2 seconds while most loops can be executed every 0.5 to 1.0 seconds. These cycle times affect flow control loops and other fast control loops.

PLCs
PLCs can withstand has industrial enviroments. PLCs are used for discrete and continuous control. Discrete control is used for startup and shutdown and batch sequencing operations. Ladder logic is used to program PLCs.

PLCs vs. DCSs

Advantage of PLCs:
Better to withstand harsh operating enviroments, faster cycle time are possible, easier to maintain due to modular nature and lower cost for small and medium sized applications.

Advantage of DCSs:
Lower cost per loop for applications involving a large number of control loops.

PLC Architecture
Programming Interface PLC Cabinet Power Supply

Processor Data Highway I/O Modules

Input Devices

Output Devices

Fieldbus Technology
Based upon smart valves, smart sensors and controllers installed in the field. Uses data highway to replace wires from sensor to DCS and to the control valves. Less expensive installations and better reliability. Can mix different sources (vendors) of sensors, transmitters, and control valves. Now commercially available and should begin to replace DCSs.

Fieldbus Architecture
Data Storage High Speed Ethernet PLCs Local Area Network Plant Optimization

.................
Smart Sensors

Local Area Network

H1 Fieldbus Smart Sensors Smart Control Valves and Controllers

H1 Fieldbus Smart Control Valves and Controllers

H1 Fieldbus Network

H1 Fieldbus Network

Actuator System
Control Valve
Valve body Valve actuator

I/P converter Instrument air system

Typical Globe Control Valve

Cross-section of a Globe Valve

Types of Globe Valves

Quick Opening- used for safety by-pass applications where quick opening is desired Equal Percentage- used for about 90% of control valve applications since it results in the most linear installed characteristics Linear- used when a relatively constant pressure drop is maintained across the valve

Inherent Valve Characteristics

1

f(x)

QO 0.5 Linear =% 0 0 20 40 60 80 Stem Position (% Open) 100

Use of the Valve Flow Equation

Given: water as the fluid; P 16 psig; Cv 5 Determine the flow rate through this control valve. Using Equation 2.3.3, FV KCv p / s.g. (1)(5) 16 /1 20 gpm

Typical Flow System

C.W.

FT

Pressure Drop vs. Flow Rate

25

Pressure Drop (psi)

20 15 10 5 0 0 50 Line Losses Valve P

Pump Head

100 150 Flow Rate (GPM)

200

Installed Flow Characteristic

Installed Flow Rate (GPM)
200 150 100 50 0 0 20 40 60 80 Stem Position (% Open) 100 =% Valve Linear Valve

Slope of Installed Characteristic

7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 0

Slope of the Installed Flow Characteristic

Linear Valve =% Valve

20 40 60 80 Stem Position (% Open)

100

Effect of Linearity in the Installed Valve Characteristics

Highly nonlinear installed characteristics can lead to unstable flow control or a sluggish performance for the flow controller.

Flow System with Relatively Constant Valve Pressure Drop

FT

30 ft

Pressure Drop vs. Flow Rate

15

Pressure Drop (psi)

Hydrostatic Head

10 5

Valve P

Line Losses 0 0 100 200 300 400 Flow Rate (GPM) 500 600

Installed Valve Characteristics

600

Installed Flow Rate (GPM)

500 400 300 200 100 0 0 20 40 60 80 Stem Position (% Open) 100 =% Valve Linear Valve

Analysis of These Examples

Note the linear installed valve characteristics over a wide range of stem positions. If the ratio of pressure drop across the control valve for the lowest flow rate to the value for the highest flow rate is greater than 5, an equal percentage control valve is recommended.

Control Valve Design Procedure

Evaluate Cv at the maximum and minimum flow rate using the flow equation for a valve (Eq 2.3.3). Determine which valves can effectively provide the max and min flow rate remembering that, in general, the valve position should be greater than about 15% open for the minimum flow rate and less than 85% open for the maximum flow rate. Choose the smallest valve that meets the above criterion for the minimum capital investment or choose the largest valve to allow for future throughput expansion.

Additional Information Required to Size a Control Valve

CV versus % open for different valve sizes. Available pressure drop across the valve versus flow rate for each valve. Note that the effect of flow on the upstream and downstream pressure must be known.

Valve Sizing Example

Size a control valve for max 150 GPM of water and min of 50 GPM.

Determine CV at Max and Min FV

Use the valve flow equation (Equation 2.3.3) to calculate Cv For P, use pressure drop versus flow rate (e.g., Table on page 82)
Cv ( x) C
max v

Fm P /

150 50 min 28.9; Cv 9.1 27 /1 30 /1

Valve Position for Max and Min Flows for Different Sized Valves
Max flow not large enough not large enough 67% 55% 47% Min flow 75% 68% 45% 30% 22%

1-inch valve 1.5-inch valve 2-inch valve 3-inch valve 4-inch valve

Analysis of Results
2-inch valve appears to be best overall choice: least expensive capital and it can provide up to a 50% increase in throughput. 3-inch and 4-inch valve will work, but not recommended because they will cost more to purchase. The 2-inch valve will provide more than enough extra capacity (i.e., something else will limit capacity for it)

Valve Deadband
It is the maximum change in instrument air pressure to a valve that does not cause a change in the flow rate through the valve. Deadband determines the degree of precision that a control valve or flow controller can provide. Deadband is primarily affected by the friction between the valve stem and the packing.

For Large Diameter Lines (>6), Use a Butterfly Valve

Valve Actuator Selection

Choose an air-to-open for applications for which it is desired to have the valve fail closed. Choose an air-to-close for applications for which it is desired to have the valve fail open.

Cross-section of a Globe Valve

Optional Equipment
Valve positioner- a controller that adjusts the instrument air in order to maintain the stem position at the specified position. Greatly reduces the deadband of the valve. Positioners are almost always used on valves serviced by a DCS. Booster relay- provides high capacity air flow to the actuator of a valve. Can significantly increase the speed of large valves.

Photo of a Valve Positioner

Adjustable Speed Pumps

Used extensively in the bio-processing industries (better to maintain sterile conditions and relatively low flow rates). Fast and precise. Do require an instrument air system (i.e., 420 mA signal goes directly to pump). Much higher capital costs than control valves for large flow rate applications.

Control Relevant Aspects of Actuator Systems

The key factors are the deadband of the actuator and the dynamic response as indicated by the time constant of the valve. Control valve by itself- deadband 10-25% and a time constant of 3-15 seconds. Control valve with a valve positioner or in a flow control loop- deadband 0.1-0.5% and a time constant of 0.5-2 seconds.