HYDRAULIC DESIGN OF PENSTOCKS

Penstocks: Pressure conduit or shaft, usually of short length to convey

water from reservoir or Forebay to scroll case and thence to turbines.

The fabricated penstocks are tested for 1.5 times the design pressure.
Radiographic and ultrasonic testing are done for detecting defects in the
welded joints.
Gate is provided u/s of the Penstock and d/s of the gate air vent or stand pipe
is provided, which connects the top of the Penstock to the open air. Air vent
pipe facilitate proper escape of air from the Penstock while filling the
Penstocks.
Air Valve is provided just before the powerhouse to discharge water when
pressure increases on account of sudden closure.
Manholes are provided along the length of the Penstock at 120 m to 150 m to
provide access to the pipe interior for inspection maintenance and repair.
A length of 5 to 10 times the diameter of the penstock should be horizontal
from the centerline of the unit, so as to have a uniform distribution of water in
the scroll or spiral case.
The radius of curvature in the Penstock profile should be three to five times
the diameter of the Penstock.
Classification of Penstocks

(A) Based on Type of Installation

(i) Surface Penstocks BSL in HP (Surface Penstock and Penstock in tunnel)
Advantages:
Easy and regular inspection
Less expensive installation
Maintenance and repairs easy
Safety against sliding may be ensured by properly designed anchorage
Disadvantages:
Prone to rusting and corrosion being exposed
Repeated painting of outer surface is needed
Supporting and anchoring on steep hill slope is difficult and costly.
Susceptible to damage by landslides, snowslides etc.
Expansion joint necessary
Chances of water conveyed being frozen in severe cold climates.
(ii) Embedded Penstocks
The steel penstock is entirely embedded in the large mass of concrete dam serving
as watertight membrane.
Nagarjunasagar dam: embedded and supported on the d/s slope of the dam
Jawaharsagar dam: Partly embedded in the dam and partly encased in concrete
and buried in earth.
(iii) Buried Penstocks
Advantages:
Protection against effect of temperature.
Protection against freezing of water
Landscape remains unchanged
Protection against animals, earthquake shocks.
No expansion joint needed
Continuous support helps in reducing steel plates thickness
Disadvantages:
Less accessible for inspection difficult to locate fault.
Installation costly
Tendency of sliding of pipes on steep hill sides.
Need special coating against the corrosive action of the salts
Maintenance and repairs difficult

(IV) In-Tunnel Penstocks
Conduits are placed in open tunnel duly supported suitably as surface penstock
or backfilled with concrete. The Penstocks are also laid in concrete diversion
tunnel converted into Penstock tunnel and backfilled with concrete as at Pong
Dam.
(V) In-Shaft Penstocks
Penstocks is laid in pressure shaft or tunnel shaft and backfilled with concrete.
In this arrangement rock participation is taken into account. So, thickness
requirement is less.
(B) Based on Method of Fabrication

(i) Riveted or Flange Bolted Penstocks
(ii) Welded Penstocks
(iii) Multilayer Penstock several layers of thin steel plates wrapped around the
pre-fabricated central core pipe.
(iv) Banded or Hooped Penstocks bands or hoops are slipped over thin walled
penstock pipe which induce prestress in the pipe



(C) Based on Rigidity of Supports

(i) Rigid pipelines with anchors
(ii) Flexible pipelines expansion joint or flexible coupling
(iii) Semi Rigid pipelines

(D) Based on Material of Fabrication

(i) Steel Penstocks used for head > 50 m, welded pipe is invariably used.
Minimum thickness of exposed steel pipe:

USBR t (cm) = (D + 50)/400 ; D = diameter of pipe (cm)
IS 11639-1995 t (m) = (R +0.25)/200 ; R = radius of pipe (m)
For large diameter ( > 5m ) Penstocks, stiffening rings are provided

(ii) RCC Penstock for head upto 20 m
(iii) Glass fibre Reinforced Penstock

Layout of Penstocks

Layout of the Penstock depends on:
Topography, site condition, location of dam and power plant

Alignment:
Shortest route; sharp bends avoided
The radius of curvature in the Penstock profile should be three to five
times the diameter of the Penstock.

Grade:
Grade varies to suit the topography

Branches and Wyes:
Provided to ensure smooth streamlined flow from header to the
branch to minimize losses. And should have small angle of
deflection.
ECONOMICAL DIAMETER OF PENSTOCKS

= Minimum [Annual cost of Penstocks (Capital + OMR cost) + Cost of power
lost on account of head loss]

Empirical Formulae

1. G.S. Sarkarias Formulae (1958)




D = Diameter in (m); H = rated head of Turbines in (m); P = rated horse Power (metric)



Q = discharge (m
3
/s)
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
65 . 0
43 . 0
H
P
62 . 0 D
4 / 1
2
gH 2
Q
55 . 3 D
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
2. USBR (1958)

D(m); P(hp); H(m)


3. USBR (1961) (P J Bier)
Permissible velocity in Penstocks,
V(m/s); P(hp); H(m)

4. G. Isakssons Formula
D =Q
0.40
for steel lined shafts at depths from 30 to 80 m
D(m); Q(m
3
/s)

5. F. Fahlbushs Formula
D = 0.62 Q
0.48
for concrete lined conduits
D = 1.12 H
-0.12
Q
0.45
for steel lined conduits
D(m); Q(m
3
/s); H(m)
466 . 0
H
P
176 . 0 D
|
.
|

\
|
=
gH 2 125 . 0 V =
econ_dia_Penst1.xls
Graphical Solutions
Cost of power lost due to losses C
1

Total annual cost of the penstock C
2


Total C= C
1
+C
2
Diameter
Cost
C
1
C
2
C

Economical diameter
Analytical Methods
Notations used:
C
c
= Unit cost of concrete lining Rs/m
3

C
e
= Unit cost of excavation Rs/m
3
C
p
= Cost of 1 KWh energy in Rs.
C
s
= Cost of steel Rs/kg
D = Diameter
q = Efficiency of plant
e
j
= Joint efficiency of Penstock
H = Head on Penstock including water hammer
N = Manning's Coefficient
L
f
= Load factor (annual)
Q = Discharge

s
= Mass density of steel (kg/m
3
)
o
a
= Safe allowable stress
I = %age by which steel penstock is overweight due to provision of
stiffeners, Corrosion allowance etc.
R
f
= Capital recovery factor
Analytical Methods
Let C
1
= Annual cost of the energy lost in friction
C
2
= annual costs corresponding to any Diameter D

The optimality condition is



If C
1
= k
1
D
m
and C
2
= k
2
D
m

k
1
, k
2
m & n are constants

mk
1
D
m-1
+ nk
2
D
n-1
= 0


0
dD
) C C ( d
2 1
=
+
m n
1
2
1
2
1
m n
nk
mk
D
nk
mk
D

|
|
.
|

\
|
=
=
Annual Cost of Energy Lost, C
1

Head Loss




Power Lost in friction per unit length = gQh
f
q




Average running time = L
f
365 24 (hr)
Energy Lost per year in kWh per unit length of penstock




g 2
V
D
fL
h
2
f
=
5
2
f
D 1 . 12
fQ
L
h
=
W
D 1 . 12
fQ
. g
5
3
q =
kWh
1000
1
. 24 . 365 . L .
D 1 . 12
fQ
. g
f
5
3
q =
f
5
3
L
D
fQ
g 724 . 0 q =
m
1 p f
5
3
1
D k C L
D
fQ
g 724 . 0 C = q =
Thus k
1
= 0.724gfQ
3
qL
f
C
p

and m = - 5
For =1000kg/m
3
; g=9.81 m/s
2
k
1
= 0.710210
4
fQ
3
qL
f
Cp
Annual Cost C
2
corresponding to any diameter D
= R
f
capital cost of penstock + OMR costs
Let annual OMR cost = M times of capital cost (say M=0.03)
C
2
= (R
f
+ M) capital cost of penstock
Mass of steel,



( )
s
Dt W t =
j a
e 2
PD
t
o
=
s
j a
e 2
PD
D W
o
t =
s
j a
2
e 2
PD
W
o
t
=
s s
j a
2
C
e 2
PD
Steel of Cost
o
t
=
( )
n
2 s s
j a
2
f 2
D k C
e 2
PD
M R C =
o
t
+ =
Thus,
7
1
2
1
) 5 ( 2
1
2
1
k
k
5 . 2
2
5
k
k
D
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
|
|
.
|

\
|
=

( ) 2 n ; C
e 2
P
M R k Thus
s s
j a
f 2
=
o
t
+ =
( )
s
a
3
f 2
j
3
s
C
P
10 5 . 14 03 . 0 R k
85 . 0 e ; kg/m 7850 For
o
+ =
= =
econ_dia_Penst2.xls
I.S. METHOD (IS 11625 1986)
(a) Annual cost of energy lost
Head Loss in Penstock / m Length,






Annual cost of power lost







3
4
2 2
f
R
V N
h =
2
2
3
4
2 2
D
4 4
D
Q N
|
.
|

\
|
t
|
.
|

\
|
=
3
16
2 2
D
Q N 3 . 10
=
p f f 1
C .
1000
1
. 24 365 . L . . Q . g . h C q =
p f
3
16
2 2
C 24 365 L Q 81 . 9
D
Q N 3 . 10
q =
3
16
p f
3 2 6
D
C L Q N 10 88 . 0 q
=
(b) Annual cost and OMR Cost of penstock
(i) Cost of excavation, considering tunnel dia 0.33 D in excess of
Penstock


= 1.39 D
2
C
e

(ii) Cost of Concrete lining taking thickness of lining as 0.165 D
= t (D+ 0.33 D) 0.165 D C
c

= 0.6 D
2
C
c

(iii) Cost of steel in Penstock
Penstock cost including I% for stiffeners etc = t Dt ( 1 + I)
s
C
s

( )
e
2
C D 33 . 0 D
4
+
t
=
j a j a
e 2
HD
e 2
PD
t
o

=
o
=
s
j a
C 7850 ) I 1 (
e 2
HD
D +
o

t =
j a
s
2
8
e
C ) I 1 ( HD
10 21 . 1
o
+
=
Total capital Cost = (i) + (ii) + (iii)




Annual Capital Cost, C
2




Total Annual cost = C
1
+ C
2

Economical diameter


(
(

o
+
+ + =
j a
s
2
8
c
2
e
2
e
C ) I 1 ( HD
10 21 . 1 C D 6 . 0 C D 39 . 1
f
j a
s
2
8
c
2
e
2
R
e
C ) I 1 ( HD
10 21 . 1 C D 6 . 0 C D 39 . 1
(
(

o
+
+ + =
0
dD
) C C ( d
2 1
=
+
0 R D 2
e
C ) I 1 ( H 10 21 . 1
C 6 . 0 C 39 . 1 C L Q N 10 88 . 0 D
3
16
f
j a
s
8
c e p f
3 2 6
1
3
16
=
(
(

o
+
+ + + q

f
j a
s
8
c e
p f
3 2 6
3
22
R
e
C ) I 1 ( H 10 21 . 1
C 6 . 0 C 39 . 1
C L Q N 10 35 . 2
D
(
(

o
+
+ +
q
=
econ_dia_Penst3.xls
( )
( ) 1 i 1
i 1 i
R factor, recovery Capital : Note
N
N
f
+
+
=
Number of Penstocks

Decided on the basis of through analysis of merits and demerits and
economics of different feasible alternatives.
Long Penstock (high head Penstock) Single in upper stretches and
branching in lower stretches
Short Penstock Individual to each unit
A single big size penstock less costly compared to multiple penstocks
Significant losses at the manifold
Increased number of accessories & civil works for more number of
penstocks
Mathematical comparative study for one or n number of Penstocks
with discharge Q and head H remaining the same

(A) Velocity is kept constant, i.e., V = V
n












n
D
d
d
4
n D
4
2 2
=
t
=
t
Thickness of pipe



o
a
= allowable stress





a
n
a
2
Pd
t and
2
PD
t
o
=
o
=
n
t
t
n
=
Volume of steel per unit length in n conduits



Same as for a single pipe
Dt n .
n
t
.
n
D
n dt
n
t = t = t =
f fn
2 2
n
fn
2
f
h n h
pipes n for
2g
V
.
D
fL n
2g
V
d
fL
h
pipe single a for
2g
V
D
fL
h
=
= =
=
Head Loss
(B) If head loss is kept constant

as

as Q = n Q
n

5
2
n
1
5
2
1 f
5
2
f
d
Q
a
D
Q
a h
D
Q
h = =
5
2
n
5
2
n
2
d
Q
D
Q n
=
5 / 2
n
D
d =
5 / 2
n
n
t
t =
As t diameter
Volume of steel per unit length in n conduits
5 / 1
5 / 2 5 / 2
n
Dtn n .
n
t
.
n
D
n dt t =
t
= t =
5 / 1
5 / 4
2 2
n
n
V
4 . n
D n
Q
4
d
n
Q
V =
t
=
t
=
5 / 1
n
n
V
V =
Design Criteria for Penstocks
Non-embedded Penstocks
According to the ASME Code, a penstock may be designed under the following
conditions.
(i) Normal conditions maximum static head plus pressure rise due to normal
operation
Allowable stress = ultimate tensile strength /3 (3)
< 2/3 (0.5) Minimum yield stress

(ii) Intermittent condition conditions during filling & draining the penstock
Allowable stress = Ultimate tensile strength / 2.25 (2.5)
< 0.8 (2/3) Minimum yield stress

(iii) Emergency condition gate closure etc
Allowable stress = Ultimate tensile strength / 1.5 (2)
< (0.8) Minimum yield stress

(iv) Exceptional condition Condition includes malfunctioning of control equipment
in the most adverse manner and shall not be used as the basis of design.
( ) As per IS 11639 (Part1) 1986
Embedded Penstocks
According to the IS 11639 (PartII) 1986, a penstock may be designed under
the following conditions.
(i) Normal conditions maximum static head plus pressure rise due to normal
operation allowable stress = ultimate tensile strength /3
< 0.6 Minimum yield stress

(ii) Intermittent condition conditions during filling & draining the penstock
Allowable stress = 0.4 Ultimate tensile strength
< 2/3 Minimum yield stress

(iii) Emergency condition gate closure etc
Allowable stress = 2/3 Ultimate tensile strength
> 0.9 Minimum yield stress
(iv) Exceptional condition
Allowable stress < Minimum yield stress

Wall thickness of Penstock
1. ASME Code
15 . 0
P 6 . 0 e
PR
) cm ( t
j a
+
o
=
) cm / kg ( ); cm ( R ; ) cm / kg ( P
2
a
2
o
2. Pacific gas and Electric Cos formula (1957)
t 0012 . 0 D
t 002 . 0
H
a
+
o
=
) mm ( t ); m / t ( ); m ( D ; ) m ( H
2
a
o
Subject to minimum
288
D
t =
Allow 1.5mm extra thickness for corrosion
3. Barlows Formula
t 002 . 0 D
t 002 . 0
H
a
+
o
=
4. Minimum thickness to provide necessary rigidity during transport
and handling
(I) U.S.B.R. (1958)
( ) ) mm in D (
400
500 D
mm t
+
=
(ii) Mosonys recommendations
6 mm for small diameter liners
10 mm for large diameter liners

(iii) IS:11639:1995 (Part 2)
200
25 . 0 R
t
+
=
) m ( R ; ) m ( t
HYDRAULIC LOSSES IN PENSTOCK

(1) Head loss at trash rack

USBR Formula (IS 11388 : 1995)




V
a
= actual velocity through rack opening

When the trash rack consists of a rack of bars, the loss will depend on bar
thickness, depth and spacing



a
n
= net area through trash rack bars
a
t
= gross area of racks and support

where max. loss values are desired, 50% of the rack area shall be considered
clogged
g 2
V
k h
2
a
t t
=
2
t
n
t
n
t
a
a
a
a
45 . 0 45 . 1 k
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
(2) Head Loss at Intake Entrance
depends on shape of the intake mouth


V = Velocity at entrance
k
e
= Loss coefficient for entrance and read from following table (IS:4880
(PartIII) 1976)
g 2
V
k h
2
e e
=
(3) Friction Loss

Darcy-Weisbach formula:



Friction factor f shall be read from Moody Diagram


Mannings Formula:


n = 0.012 to 0.014 for concrete pipes
= 0.008 to 0.012 for steel pipes
g 2
V
D
fL
h
2
f
=
2
1
3
2
S R
n
1
V =
(4) Bend Loss
) surface interior of roughness , angle deflection , D / R ( f k
g 2
V
k h
b
2
b b
=
=
Loss Coefficients for Pipe Bends of Smooth Interior
Loss Coefficients for 90
o
Bends of Rough Interior Surface
(5) Valves & Fittings Loss
g 2
V
k h
2
v v
=
General Trend of Valve Loss Coefficient and Restriction of Passage for
Butterfly Valves
IS 2951 Part II - 1965
(6) Branches and Wyes Losses
Loss = f (angle of bifurcations, ratio of x-sectional area, shape)
Loss at Pipe Junctions with Dividing Flow
(7) Loss due to expansion & contraction
g 2
) V V ( k
h
2
2 1 ex
ex

=
Expansion


Sudden expansion k
ex
= 1
Gradual conical expansion
For total cone angle o =40
o
to 60
o
k
ex
= 1
o =7.5
o
to 35
o




Contraction



For gradual k
co
= 0.1
For Abrupt k
co
= 0.5

|
|
.
|

\
|
=
g 2
V V
k h
2 2
co c
2 1
22 . 1
ex
2
tan 5 . 3 k
|
.
|

\
|
o
=
Loss Coefficients for contraction
AERATION INLET (AIRVENT)
An air vent is always provided just downstream of a control gate
to avoid vortices following empirical equations may be used:

for symmetric approach

for lateral approach

h(m); d(m); and V(m/s)


Purposes

(i) To admit air when gate is closed and the water in the conduit recedes
down.
(ii) To exhaust air when the penstock is being filled through bye pass lines to
balance the water pressure on two sides of the gate prior to its being lifted
up.
(iii) To control sub-pressures downstream of gate at partial opening
3 . 0
D V
h
>
4 . 0
D V
h
>
h
V
Air vent
Q
a

As per IS 9761:1981 the air vent shall be so designed as to admit air at the
rate the turbine is discharging water under full gate conditions (Q
a
= Q)

The area of air vent may be fixed by the following formula (IS: 9761:1981)





A = Area of the inlet pipe in m
2

Q = Max. discharge through penstock in m
3
/s.
F = Factor of safety against collapse of pipe (3 to 4)
D = Diameter of penstock in m
t = Thickness of penstock in m
C
d
= Coefficient of discharge through inlet (0.5 for ordinary type of intake valves
and 0.7 for short air inlet pipes)
d
2
3
C 750000
t
D
F Q
A
|
.
|

\
|
=
In the above equation it is assumed that pressure outside the penstock is equal
to pressure outside the air vent pipe


E = Youngs modulus
D = Penstock diameter
I = Moment of Inertia =




Introducing Factor of Safety F


3
e
D
I E 24
P =
12
t
3
3
e
D
t
E 2 P
|
.
|

\
|
=
3
e
D
t
E
F
2
P
|
.
|

\
|
=
Flow through air inlet

gh P gh 2 A C Q
e d a
= =
2 2
d
2
a
A gC 2
Q
h =
2 2
d
2
a e
A gC 2
Q
g
P
=

2 2
d
2
a
e
A C 2
Q
P

=
2 2
d
2
a
3
A C 2
Q
D
t
E
F
2
=
|
.
|

\
|
3
2
d
2
a
2
t
D
E C 4
Q F
A
|
.
|

\
|

=
E 2 t
D
C
Q F
A
2
3
d
a

|
.
|

\
|
=
Let = 1.2 kg/m
3
E = 2.1 10
10
kg/m
2
= 2.1 10
10
9.81 N/m
2

2
1
.
81 . 9 10 1 . 2
2 . 1
t
D
C
Q F
A
10
2
3
d
a

|
.
|

\
|
=
828674
1
.
t
D
C
Q F
2
3
d
a
|
.
|

\
|
=
Some empirical relationships for size of air vent pipe air :

1. Euger & Seelays formula


Q
a
(m
3
/s); A (m
2
); P
e
(kg/cm
2
)
P
e
= differential pressure between the atmosphere and in the
penstock

2. Fourth congress on large dam guide
Area of air vent = 10% of control gate area
e d a
P A C 400 Q =
273 . 0
2
2
H
L P
00573 . 0 d
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
3. U.S.B.R. design guide
Capacity of air vent = 25% of conduit discharge

4. G.S. Sarkarias Formula
Dia of air vent pipe



L = Length of air vent pipe , m
P = Rated output (H.P.)
H = Rated head of turbine, m
END OF CHAPTER