KULIAH 1

PENGENALAN KONSEP TINGKAH LAKU

DAN MODIFIKASI TINGKAH LAKU

Definisi tingkah laku

- apa yang orang kata dan lakukan (Actions)

- mempunyai satu atau lebih dimensi (Dimensios)

- boleh diperhati, dihurai dan direkod (Observable and Measurable)

- dalam bentuk overt or covert.

Examples of behavior Martha sits at her computer and types a letter to her mother Action Dimension : pressing the keys on the keyboard : frequency of pressing keys, duration of typing Is observable and measurable Overt behavior

Aminah (usia 1 tahun) tidur dalam buaian dan menangis dengan kuatnya. Ibunya kemudian mengangkatnya dan memberinya susu. Action : Dimension: Is it observable? Is it overt or covert behavior?

Adakah ini tingkah laku?

- Kecerdasan - Sikap - Motivasi -------------- lebel tingkah laku - Kreativiti - Marah

Definisi Modifikasi tingkah laku

Behavior modification is the field of psychology concerned with analyzing and modifying human behavior Analyzing: identifying the functional relationship between the environment and a particular behavior to understand the reason for behavior or to determine why a person behaved as he or she did. Modifying: developing and implementing procedures to help people change their behavior. It involves altering environmental events so as to influence behavior. { Behavior Modification Procedures : instruments that are used to help a person change socially significant behaviors, with the goal of improving some aspect of the persons life} * An alternative term for behavior medification is applied behavior analysis

Common Misconceptions About Behavior Modification

Relies on punishment Uses bribes Simplistic Ignores the real causes of behavior, just treats the symptoms Leads to people controlling each other Ruins intrinsic motivation Makes people dependent on external incentives Dehumanizes people Behavior modification only works with kids and retarded people

Bagaimana tingkah laku berkembang

Pembelajaran: Tingkah laku dipelajari

Perkaitan antara rangsangan dgn rangsangan Ganjaran dan hukuman Pemerhatian / permodelan Proses kognitif Secara tidak sengaja

Adakah t/laku terhasil dari baka??

Bagaimana tingkah laku berkembang Kaedah pembelajaran: Pembelajaran Klasik

(Pembelajaran berlaku secara perkaitan antara rangsangan tak terlazim dengan rangsangan terlazim)

Pembelajaran operan
(Pembelajaran berlaku secara perkaitan antara rangsangan dan tindak balas)

Pembelajaran Kognitif
(pembelajaran berlaku dari aktiviti proses mental)

Ciri-ciri Modifikasi Tingkah laku

-Fokus kepada tingkah laku
T/Laku yang boleh diubah (T.laku sasaran) .. T/Laku excess atau t/laku deficit (**)

-Berasaskan prinsisp-prinsip tingkah laku

Berdasarkan kajian eksperimen dalam makmal eksperimen analisis tingkah laku / Analisis tingkah laku gunaan

-Menekankan kepada peristiwa dalam persekitaran masa kini

T/laku dikawal oleh peristiwa (p/ubah kawalan) di persekitaran MTL digunakan mengawal peristiwa tersebut

-Menghuraikan prosedur modifikasi dengan tepat

Prosedur MTL perlu digunakan dgn betul

Ciri-ciri Modifikasi Tingkah laku

- Rawatan yang diamalkan oleh manusia dalam kehidupan seharian.
MTL diamalkan oleh guru-guru,penyelia, pensyarah yang bertujuan utk

mengubah t/laku. Biasanya orang ini telah terlatih

-Mengukur perubahan tingkah laku

Perlu direkod/ dinilai secara berterusan utk ketahui adakah perubahan itu kekal dlm masa yang panjang

-Menekankan semula peristiwa-peristiwa lalu yang menyebabkan sesuatu tingkah laku berlaku.
Dptkan rekod/maklumat berguna yg berkaitan dengan tingkah laku yang hendak diubah

-Menolak ramalan yang berkaitan dengan penyebab

sesuatu tingkah laku.
Jgn buat andaian kerana tidak saintifik

Tingkah laku bermasalah

Tingkah laku yang boleh dimotivasikan

1.

Tingkah laku berkurangan (deficit) Kurang dimensi bagi sesuatu tingkah laku tertentu Cth- Pekerja yang suka ponteng kerja, - Individu yang tidak beri perhati kepada peraturan - Pelajar yang tidak siapkan esei/ malas belajar - malas
Tingkah laku berlebihan (Excesses) Terlalu banyak dimensi bagi sesuatu tingkah laku tertentu Cth: - Individu yang suka menyampuk perbualan orang lain. -Merokok secara berlebihan

2.

Contoh-contoh tingkah laku yang memerlukan prosedur modifikasi tingkah laku,

1.Tingkah laku menyendiri diri: Seseorang yang suka bersendirian sama ada dalam kerja atau pergaulan, sedangkan rakan-rakan lain berseronok dan berinteraksi antara satu sama lain. 2.Membuang sampah: Individu yang tidak ada inisiatif membersihkan semula tempat perkelahannya selepas digunakan atau individu yang suka membuang sampah bukannya di tempat pembuangan sampah. 3.Belajar secara tidak berkesan: Belajar disaat akhir, belajar sambil berbual.

Contoh-contoh tingkah laku yang memerlukan prosedur modifikasi tingkah laku, Samb 4. Memandu dengan laju: Memandu tanpa mengambil kira tahap kelajuan yang dibenarkan ketika di lebuh raya. Fobia: Takut (gayat) menaiki kapal terbang, tempat tinggi atau geli dengan lipas, tikus. Pengurusan pekerja: tingkah laku ponteng kerja. kurang bermotivasi. Merokok secara berlebihan: menghisap rokok sebanyak 1 kotak dalam masa 1 jam.

5.

6. 7

Bidang-bidang yang mengamalkan MTL Developmental Disablities Mental Illness Education and Special education Rehabilitation Community Psychology Clinical Psychology Business, Industry, and Human Services
(Modifikasi t/laku organisasi/mengurus t/laku organisasi)

Self Management Child management Prevention Sports Psychology Health Related Behavior Gerontology

Kuliah 2:

Analisis tingkah laku: Memerhati dan Merekod Tingkah laku

* How do you define a target behavior in a behavior

modification programme * What different methods can you use to record a target behavior? * How does continuous recording differ from interval and time sample recording * What is reactivity of behavior recording and how can you minimize it? * What is interobserver reliability and why it is important?

What is target behavior? # behavior that you want to modify # It also called behavior assessment. Why behavior assessment is important? - Can help to determine weather treatment is necessary - Can provide information that helps you choose the best treatment. - Allows you determine weather the behavior changed after the treatment was implement. How do you know that you will fails this subjects?---Peringatan!!!! @ Apabila mendifinisikan tingkah laku sasaran, pengkaji perlu tentukan secara tepat sama ada apa yang dikatakan atau dilakukan itu tingkah laku sasaran yang hendak diubah itu jenis berkurangan atau berlebihan. @ Definisi tingkah laku sasaran itu mesti objektif dan tidak kabur.

How to define of target behavior:

1. Look at the characteristics of target behavior to be record

Topography: Form of a particular response Amount:

Frequency The number of instances of the behavior that occur in a given period time
Duration The length of time that occurs within some period Intensity: Force of response (utilized instrumentation) . Eg: Voice meter to measure the loudness of voice. Stimulus control: The conditions under which behavior might be observed to occur Latency: The time between the occurrence of a stimulus and the beginning of a response. Quality:

2. Look at the types of target behavior - Is it an operant behavior - Is it a respondent behavior - Determine the alternative behavior

Mendefinisi tingkah laku sasaran

Panas baran (Tantrum). When Ahmad cries an sobs / lies on the floor and kicks then floor or walls / pounds toys or other objects on the floor Mengigit jari (Nail- biting). Any time Ah Seng finger is in his mouth and his teeth are closed together on the fingernail, cuticle, or skin around the nail. Asertif (Assertiveness) When Ali says no to someone who ask him to do something that is not a part of her job / When he asks co-worker not to smoke in her office. Belajar ? .

Jenis penilaian tingkah laku -Penilaian langsung ( Pemerhatian semulajadi)

-Penilaian tidak secara langsung - ( Menggunakan instrument soalselidik, temuduga, skala pengkadaran).
Penilaian yang mana lebih tepat?

Merekod tingkah laku

Perkara-perkara diperlukan ketika merekod * Pemerhati

a professional / routinely assosiated with the client / must have proximity to the client / must have time to observe and record / willing to function as observer * Bila dan di mana kerja-kerja merekod hendak dijalankan

When -

in a specific observation period ( at the time that target behavior

In naturals setting / contrived setting whre the target behavior typically occurs

Where-

MEMILIH KAEDAH MEREKOD

Lain aspek tingkah laku sasaran yang hendak diukur, kaedah lain digunakan untuk merekod.

Merekod secara berterusan (Identify onset and offset (beginning and end) of instance of the behavior)
Method : frequency(amount) / duration / intensity / latency

Merekod hasil: atau merekod hasil tetap

Record the tangible outcome or permanent product of the occurrence of the behavior

indirect assessment method ( using instrument like units product / record number)

MEMILIH KAEDAH MEREKOD Merekod secara interval Record the occurrence or nonoccurrent of behavior in consecutive intervals of time during an observations period. (Type of interval recording partial interval recording / whole interval recording) Merekod contoh masa

Record the occurrence or nonoccurrent of behavior in discontinuous interval time (time samples) during an observation period.

Memilih Instrumen merekod:

- Data sheet most effectively - Stop-watch

- Others instrument

Rekabentuk kajian - A B design ( A = baseline) / (B = treatment) - A-B-A-B design

- Multiple design

Kad Data kekerapan

Kad Data kekerapan Nama: Pemerhati: Definisi tingkah laku sasaran: Tarikh 1 2 3 4 5 Kekerapan 6 7 8 9 10 11 Jumlah

Kad Data Duration

Kad Data Duration

Nama: Pemerhati: Definisi tingkah laku sasaran: Tarikh Date
1 /1/07

Onset
8.00

1 Offset
8.10

Duration 2 3 Onset Offset Onset Offset

9.30 9.45 10.40 10.60

Jumlah 3 jam

35 minit

Rekabentuk A-B

Sesi Baseline 1 2 3
S T

Sesi Treatment 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

S T
S T S

Min T/Laku

Kad Data Interval

Kad Data Interval Nama: Pemerhati: Definisi tingkah laku sasaran: 10 saat interval 10 20 30 40 50 Jumlah

Graf AB design

Jumlah hadir cepat

Data Dasar (A)

Data rawatan (B)

4 Sesi

Graf A-B-A-B design

Jumlah hadir cepat Data Dasar (A) Data Rawatan (B) Data Dasar (A) Data Rawatan (B)

7 Sesi

10

11

12

Perancangan program modifikasi

Cth: Tingkah laku : Menghisap rokok

Tingkah laku sasaran: Melenyapkan tingkah laku menghisap rokok semasa waktu bekerja ( 8 pagi 5 ptg).
Baseline data:

Hari 1 2 3 4 5 Jumlah

Bil rokok 8 7 7 5 6 33 (min : 7 batang seminggu)

Perancangan rawatan (Treatment) Minggu I 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 S Hari R K J 6 6 5 4 3 2 1 1 0 0 Sasaran Result

Kuliah 3
Peneguhan

Tajuk yang akan dibincang meliputi:

Prinsip peneguhan Peneguhan positif dan negatif Peneguhan tidak terlazim dan terlazim Faktor yang mempengaruhi keberkesanan peneguhan

Jadual peneguhan.

PRINSIP PENEGUHAN
Peneguhan perlu dalam pelaziman tingkah laku. Dua Kaedah pelaziman tingkah laku dalam proses pembelajaran

Pelaziman klasik (Classical Conditioning)

Pavlovs discovery of conditioning : Conditioning through association

Model asas :
Stimulus Respond Food (US) salivation (UR)

Semasa Pelaziman: Bell (CS) Selepas pelaziman: Bell (CS)

Salivation(CR)

Pelaziman operan/ instrumental (Instrumental conditioning) Major Theorists Edward Thorndike, John Watwon, B.F Skinner Model asas : Law of effect R (RESPOND) Model operan S (STIMULUS)

discriminative stimulus
Sd

Respond
Sr

Reinforcing Stimulus
Sr

Sd

Proses Peneguhan
Proses memperkuatkan sesuatu tingkah laku menerusi pemberian kesan segera selepas tingkah laku yang dikehendaki itu berlaku. Apabila tingkah laku itu telah diperkuatkan, ia semakin kerap berlaku pada masa hadapan.

* Tingkah laku yang diperkuatkan itu dinamakan sebagai tingkah laku operan * Kesan segera yang digunakan untuk memperkuatkan tingkah laku itu dinamakan sebagai peneguh.

Contoh penggunaan peneguhan dan kesan kepada tingkah laku sasaran A child cries at night after being put to bed and her parents come to her room to comfort her and calm her down. As a result, the child now cries more often at bedtimes. A college student is answering study guide questions for her behavior modification class. When she cant figure out an answer to a question, she ask her friend who already took the class. Her friend tells her the correct answers. As a results, she is more likely to ask her friend for answer to questions she does,/t know.

3. A woman waiting for a bus opens up her umbrella when its rains..
4. A teacher smiles at Johnny and praise him when he stays in his seat and pays attention in the classroom

Kesan Peneguhan
10

Baseline

Treatment

6 4

Days

10

20

Peneguhan Positif dan Peneguhan Negatif Keperluan To increase the probability that the behavior will
occur in the future

Peneguhan Positif:
- The occurance of a behavior - is followed by the addition of stimulus or an increase in the intensity of a stimulus. The stimulus is called Reinforcer Stimulus - which result in the strengthening of the behavior - Eg:
Response
Child tentrums in the store And immediately

Consequence
Mum gives him candy

Prinsip PREMACK
Sejenis peneguhan positif. Kaedah:

Menghubungkan tingkah laku yang tinggi kemungkinan (tingkah laku sasaran), yang menjadi pergantungan tingkah laku laku yang rendah kemungkinan (tingkah laku yang bukan sasaran) bagi meningkatkan tingkah laku yang rendah kemungkinan tersebut. Cth:
Ibubapa mahu anak lelaki(remaja) menyiapkan kerja sekolah (kurang sasaran) sebelum dia boleh pergi bermain bola (tingkah laku sasaran)

Peneguhan Negatif: - The occurance of a behavior - is followed by the removal of stimulus or the decrease in the intensity of a stimulus. The stimulus is called aversive stimulus) - which result in the strengthening of the behavior
eg:
Respond Mun buys he child candy when he tantrums in the store And immediately The child stops the tantrum Consequence

Tingkah laku mengelak (Escape) dan menafikan (Avoidance))

Tingkah yang berlaku kerana hendak mengelak dan menafikan peneguhan negatif T/laku mengelak (Escape Behavior ) = The behavior results in the termination of an aversive stimulus that was already present when the behavior occurred Tingkah laku menafikan (Aviodence Behavior) = The occurrence of the behavior prevent the presentation of an aversive stimulus. Cth Escape behavior:
A person steps barefoot on the hot asphalt and immediately steps on the grass. Steeping onto the grass result in escape from the heat of the hot asphalt. Cth Avoidance Behavior: A persons put on the shoes the next time she walks on the hot asphalt. Wearing shoes results in avoidance of the heat from the hot asphalt

Peneguh
Benda/peristiwa/perkara yang digunakan dalam proses peneguhan Peneguh tak terlazim = unconditioned reinforcers The natural reinforcement. They have biological importance. (or called as primary reinforcers / unlearned reinforcers) Eg: food for a hungry persons / water for a thirsty person Peneguh terlazim = conditioned reinforcers ( a stimulus that was once neutral but became established as a reinforcer by being paired with an unconditioned reinforcer OR an already established conditioned reinforcers ( Its called as secondary reinforcer / learned reinforcers) Eg: praise, television programs

Peneguh sokongan = backup reinforcers

(A stimulus becomes a reinforcers through associated with other reinforcers, the other reinforcers are called backup reinforcers. Backup reinforcers can be either unconditioned reinforcers or conditioned reinforcers

Klasifikasi peneguh

Consumable - items that can eat or drink ( cookies, candy,fruit)

activity opportunities to watch televisyen, look at the picture book

Manipulative ride a bicycle, surt the internet / play with favorite things possessional private room, enjoy some other item that one can posses Social affectionate pats and hugs, praise, nod smiles ( A considerable amount of trial and error may be involved in finding an appropriate reinforcers for particular individual

Peneguh kepada pekerja

Special Attention Praise (praise in front of others) / Reserved parking park / flexible job duties / choice of work partner / .. Company time Extra break time / choice working hours or days off / Extra meal time/ ... Monetrary

Promotions / paid days off / company car / pay for sicks day not taken / gift certificates / business cards / tickets for special events.
Participant Voice in policy decision / more responsibility / opportunity to learn new skills /.

Faktor-faktor yang mempengaruhi keberkesanan peneguhan

Immediacy It should occurred immediately after the behavior occurs. Contingency when a behavior occur consistently followed by reinforcer Establishing operations The events or actions that change the value of a stimulus as a reinforcer ( food is more powerful reinforcer for a person who hasnt eaten). The establishing operations can influence by: Deprivation a type of establishing operation that increase the effectiveness of most unconditioned and some conditioned reinforcers Satiation - a type of establishing operation that makes a stimulus less potent as a reinforcer. Instructions / rules function as a establishing operation. Characteristics of the consequence the person / amount or intensity of stimulus

Jadual Peneguhan
Pemberian peneguhan lebih berkesan jika diberi secara bersistematik/ berjadual Klasifikasi Jadual Peneguhan Jadual Peneguhan Berterusan (CRF) one in which each occurrence of response is reinforced Jadual Peneguhan Intermiten (IRF) responses are occisonally / intermittently reinforced. Jenis-jenis Jadual Fixed ratio (FR) = Reinforcer delivered after a certain number of responses. Produces high rate of behavior, with a pause after reinforcement. (Fixed ratio 5 (5FR) = the reinforcer follow every fifth response)

Variable ratio (VR) = Reinforcer delivered after an average of X responses. Produces high and steady rate of behavior, with no pause after reinforcement
(Variable ratio 10 (VR 10) = the ratio provided after an average of 10 responses)

Fixes interval (FI) = Reinforcer delivered for the first response that occurs after a fixed interval of time. Produces a low rate of behavior, with an On-0ff pattern The response rate increases near the end of the interval.
Fixed interval 20 (FI20) = the first response that occurs after 20 seconds has elapsed results in the reinforcer.

Variable interval (VI) = Reinforcer delivered for the first response that occurs after a variable interval of time. Produces a steady, low to moderate rate of behavior, with no On and Off pattern Variable interval 20 second (VI 20 second) = sometimes the interval is more than 20 seconds and other times is less than 20 seconds.