TOFD Time of Flight Diffraction

TOFD Technique
Overview Calibration Applications Summary

& Limitations

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TOFD Overview
Forward

Diffraction Technique First described by Silk in 1977

Using diffracted signals from crack tips
Traditional

grey scale TOFD presentation

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Advantages of TOFD Technique

Wide coverage area using a pair of transducers Accurate flaw sizing; amplitude-independent Sizing technique using time-of-flight information On-line volume inspection - very fast scanning Setup independent of weld configuration Sensitive to a variety of defects No sensitivity to defect orientation Amplitude-insensitive - acoustical coupling less critical

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Diffraction
Modification or deflection of sound beam Sound striking defect causes oscillation Ends of defect become point sources Not related to orientation of defect Weaker signal than reflected needs higher gain Sharp defects provide best emitters Tips signals are located accurately Time of flight of tip signals used to size

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Diffraction

The incoming wave vibrates the defect. Each point of the defect generates new elementary spherical waves called diffraction
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Waves
Incident wave
Diffracted waves All directions Low energy Reflected wave FLAW Independent of incidence angle Diffracted waves
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Conventional Use of Diffraction

Tip

diffraction method (satellite-pulse observation technique)

Amplitude

Angle
2 Tip diffraction 1 2 Time TOF
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Slot or crack Corner reflection

TOF, Angle and velocity Height

Signals
Signals

Received

Lateral wave Subsurface Back-wall echo Mode converted (shear wave) echo
Define

top and bottom of part Note phase change

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Basic Principles of the TOFD Technique

TOFD: Typical Setup

Transmitter Receiver

Lateral wave Upper tip

Lower tip Back-wall reflection

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A-Scan Signals
Transmitter Receiver

Lateral wave

Back-wall reflection LW BW

Upper tip
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Lower tip

Some Typical Defects

Upper

surface breaking crack Back wall breaking crack Horizontal planar defect

Upper Surface Breaking Crack

Transmitter

Lateral wave is blocked

Receiver

Back-wall reflection BW No Lateral wave

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Crack tip
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Back Wall Surface Breaking Crack

Transmitter Receiver

Lateral wave

Back wall echo blocked LW No back wall echo

Tip
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Horizontal Planar Defect

(Lack of Inter-Run Fusion, Laminations)
Transmitter Receiver

Lateral wave Reflected signal

Back wall reflection

LW

BW

Reflection echo
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Data Visualization
Amplitude + White

Time

Black

Time One A-scan picture is replaced by one gray-coded line

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Data Visualization
LW A-scan

D-scan

BW

Upper surface
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Back wall

Calibration Tools
PCS

A-scan

LW T Parameters: PCS, Thickness, velocity, Probe delay, Lateral wave or Back wall
Not all of the parameters need to be known
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BW

D-scan

Measurement Tools
d1
h d1 t1 t2

A-scan

Cursors
Build-in calculator

l
t1,t2 d1, d2 and h are automatically calculated P D-scan
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Defect Position Influence

S
Transmitter

S
Receiver

t0 d

t0

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Defect Position Uncertainty

S
Transmitter

S
Receiver

t1 Constant time locus (t1+t2=ct)

dmin dmax t2

In practice: Maximum error on absolute depth position lies below 10 %.

Error on height estimation of internal (small) defect is negligible. Caution for small defects situated at the back wall.
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Transverse Scan
Time will be minimum when probes are symmetrically positioned over the defect

Lateral wave

Upper surface

Back-wall

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B-scan This type of scan yields a typical inverted parabola

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What do TOFD scans really look like?

TOFD images show the lateral wave and backwall, plus SW signals after and reflections from all defects

Lack of Fusion

Porosity

Incomplete Penetration Slag

Source: Ginzel

What do TOFD scans really look like?

Lateral wave is clearly seen in a good TOFD scan. Typically used for calibration. On clean material, defects show up well. Backwall is always strong. Watch for perturbations.
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Recommended Solution
TOFD:

YES BUT: do not forget the good things offered by the standard Pulse-Echo technique SOLUTION: do both TOFD and PE simultaneously, without reducing the scan speed

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Typical Requirements for TOFD and PE Applications

Small, lightweight, 1 to 16 channels PE and TOFD software Lateral wave straightening Real-time averaging Multi-channel data acquisition and display Linearization for true depth on flat or cylindrical surfaces Processing (data compression,..)

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Calibration
PCS

A-scan

LW
T
PCS, Thickness, velocity, Probe delay, Lateral wave or Back wall

BW

Typical multi-channel UT instrument is very user friendly and guides you with a software Wizard
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D-scan

Weld 1
(PL4882)

Toe crack

Porosity

12.5 mm

Lack of side wall fusion

Lack of root fusion

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Weld 1 (plate 4882) with Pulse-Echo

TOFD and PE clearly show the defects embedded in this weld: Lack of Fusion (root)
Lack of Sidewall Fusion Porosity Toe Crack
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Parallel Scan
LW A-scan

D-scan

BW

Upper surface
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Back-wall

Recommended Solution

PE 45 SW

TOFD

PE 60 SW

The system allows for simultaneous acquisition and analysis (inTomoview only) of TOFD and PE
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Linearized Lateral Wave

Transmitter

Receiver

Lateral wave

Couplant thickness variation Change in time of flight

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Linearized Lateral Wave

Transmitter

Receiver

Lateral wave

Misalignment variations Change in time of flight

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Linearized Lateral Wave

Transmitter

Receiver

Lateral wave

Small mechanical variations of probe separation Change of time of flight

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TOFD Advantages

Excellent PoD for mid-wall defects Good detection of mis-oriented defects Can characterize surface-breaking defects Excellent sizing for defects in transverse TOFD mode, especially with signal processing Tolerable sizing for defects in linear mode Works very well in conjunction with pulse-echo

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TOFD Limitations
Dead

zone of ~3mm at outer surface Potential dead zone at inner surface Prone to noise Over emphasizes some benign defects, e.g. porosity, laminations, interlamellar LoF Not easy to interpret

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A Few Final Words on TOFD

Is the best defect sizing technique available when correctly set-up Use in conjunction with pulse-echo for code and PoD reasons

Signals
Lateral Wave

Back-wall Echo
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Calculator

TOFD probe separation can be calculated with basic mathematical formula or Excel calculator tools
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Calculator

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Calculator
-80 5 -5
Z-axis (mm.)

-70

-60

-50

-40

-30

-20

-10

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

-15 -25

-13.6

-28.9 -35 -45 -55

X-axis (mm.)

7MHz 100mmPCS 1.5 cycles assumed

Note volume coverage less than ideal at this PCS (missing upper third). -12dB beam transmit only used for coverage calculation
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Calculator
-80 5 -5
Z-axis (mm.)

-70

-60

-50

-40 -30

-20

-10

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

-6.6

-15 -25 -35 -45 -55

X-axis (mm.)

-23.3

Increase refracted angle to 65 improves coverage without compromising resolution (for these specific conditions) PCS remains the same.
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Flaw Tip

Flaw lengths parallel to the surface can be measured from the TOFD image by fitting hyperbolic cursors similar to SAFT correction but SAFT post-processes the data

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TOFD - SAFT

Pre-SAFT processing

Post-SAFT Processing

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Limitations of TOFD
Cannot

detect all defects Limited coverage results from two potential dead zones
Dead zone near the surface
as a result of the lateral wave

Dead zone at the backwall

resulting from the width of the backwall reflection

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Other Typical Defects

Near Surface Crack

1 2

The crack blocks the Lateral Wave And the lower tip appears on the A-scan
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Incomplete Root Penetration

2 3 4 1

1 3

4 2

Note the two signals from the top & bottom

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Lack of Root Penetration

1 2 3

2
3

Note the inverted phase between LW and defect

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Lack of Fusion - Side Wall

1
1 2 3 4

3
4

Note the two signals from the top & bottom

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Porosity
1
2 1

Porosity may image in many forms whether individual or cluster

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Transverse Crack
1 1 2
1 2 3

3
4

In the LW we can observe the wide beam effect on the crack

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Concave Root
1
1

2
2 3

Distortion of back-wall echo

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Lack of Fusion - Interpass

1 2 3

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Choosing an Angle
Optimum Upper tip q 64 Optimum Lower tip q 68

Angle selected is a compromise for depth

May require selecting several zones for best results

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From Charlesworth & Temple

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TOFD Advantages
Diffracted

rather than reflected signals Longitudinal waves B-scan type imaging (side view) Accurate sizing capability (height) Fast scanning Interpretation of defects Less sensitive to defect orientation
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TOFD Limitations
Blind

area - near surface, backwall Weak signals Flaw classification limitation Interpretation of defects Sensitive to grain noise

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Codes and Standard

British

Standard European ASME

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TOFD Guides Developed

BS

7706 (1993) Guide to calibration and setting-up of the ultrasonic time-of-flight diffraction (TOFD) technique for detection, location, and sizing of flaws. British Standards Institute 1993. pr EN 583-6 (1995) Nondestructive testingultrasonic examination - Part 6: Time-offlight diffraction technique as a method for defect detection and sizing.
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ASME Adaptations to TOFD

ASME

VIII Code Case 2235 (2000 Edition) Ultrasonic examination to be in accordance with ASME Section V, Article 4 Alternatively, for techniques that do not use amplitude recording levels, . This has opened the door for TOFD to be used on Section VIII pressure vessels

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Root Crack
TOFD technique Root crack defect

X-Ray

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TOFD technique

Porosity

Porosity defect

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TOFD technique

Slag inclusion

Slag inclusion defect

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Lack of Root Fusion

TOFD technique Lack of root fusion defect

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TOFD technique

Root Concavity

Root Concavity defect

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Incomplete Root Penetration

TOFD technique Incomplete root penetration defect

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Over Penetration
TOFD technique Over penetration defect

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Irregular Root Penetration

TOFD technique Irregular root penetration defect

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Excess Weld Cap

TOFD technique Excess weld cap defect

X-Ray

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