FT1043 LECTURE 1

INTRODUCTION: PLANTS AND PLANT CELLS

THE SCOPE OF PLANT PHYSIOLOGY THE PLANT CELL BIOLOGICAL MEMBRANES CELLULAR ORGANELLES CYTOSKELETON THE EXTRACELLULAR MATRIX PLASMODESMATA CELL AND TISSUES PLANT ORGANS

Phloem of Douglas fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii) from Stern, 2006.

THE SCOPE OF PLANT PHYSIOLOGY

The term physiology is constructed from the Greek words

Physis meaning nature Logos meaning discourse

Plant physiology is a discourse about the nature of plants

Plants are viewed as biochemical machines Is about how plants function

THE PLANT CELL

Cell is the basic functional unit of plants and all living organisms The architecture of a plant reflects the number, morphology and arrangement of its individual cells A cell is an solution of chemicals called protoplasm surrounded by a plasma membrane The membrane and the protoplasm it contains are collectively referred to as a protoplast The plasma membrane is selectively permeable

The protoplast contain a variety of subcellular structures called organelles

Nucleus: contains genetic information and is the control center of the cell Cytoplasm: contains other organelles excluding the nucleus

Different organelles is the cytoplasm are the site of cellular respiration, photosynthesis, protein synthesis, secretion and so forth

Plant Cells, showing the major organelles. (a) Diagram of a mature leaf cell. From Rost, Barbour, Stocking and Murphy, 2006.

From: Rost, Barbour, Stocking and Murphy, 2006.

Source: Stern, 2006.

Source: Stern, 2006.

BIOLOGICAL MEMBRANES

Biological membranes are composed primarily of lipids and proteins, with smaller amounts of carbohydrate

The Membrane Bilayer

Phospholipids are the most abundant lipids in cell membranes Phospholipids have 2 hydrophobic (water-fearing) non-polar hydrocarbon tails and a hydrophilic (water loving) polar head group They are highly fluid and impermeable to most polar molecules The membrane bilayer is also impermeable to most polar or charged solutes. Exceptions to water, carbon dioxide, and oxygen

Membrane Protein

Most membranes contains as much as 50% protein by weight May be categorized as either integral protein or peripheral protein

Integral: may consist of a single protein or large complexes made up of several proteins with additional nonprotein components Peripheral: a predominantly hydrophilic and bind loosely with the polar phospholipid heads

Membrane proteins are responsible for all metabolic activities associated with membranes Some function as enzymes, others assist in the selective transport of solute molecules across the membrane, and others participate in energy transduction The functions of different membranes in the cell are very diverse

Source: Stern, 2006.

Source: Rost, Barbour, Stocking and Murphy, 2006.

THE EXTRACELLULAR MATRIX

Cells wall contains predominantly carbohydrate and protein 2 types of cell walls:

Primary walls: surround young, actively growing cells Secondary walls: laid down as the cells mature and are no longer growing

The Primary Cell Wall

Thin, few micrometers in thickness, consists of randomly arranged threadlike polymers of glucose, called cellulose A single molecule of cellulose may contain as many as 3,000 or more glucose units In the cell wall, the celulose molecules are grouped together in long parallel arrays called microfibrils The orientation of microfibrils in the primary wall is random

The Secondary Cell Wall

Laid down on the inside of the primary wall Secondary walls are thicker and more rigid than primary walls Often consists of 2 zones, depending on the orientation of the microfibrils They contain up to 45% cellulose, up to 35% lignin Lignin has a stronger than cellulose microfibrils strength

Source: Stern, 2006.

Plasmodesmata

Membrane-lined channels as the cellulose is laid down and the wall increases in thickness Plasmodesma are small (60 nm in diameter) but often in large numbers, permits the diffusion of small solute molecules The connection of neighboring protoplasts through plasmodesmata creates a continous cytoplasmic network reffered to as the symplast Apoplast is comprised of interconnected cell walls, intercellular spaces, and non-living vascular tissues

CELLULAR ORGANELLES

Vocuole

In a mature cell, the vacuole may occupy as much as 8090% of the cell volume Surrounded by a membrane called the vacuolar membrane or tonoplast Contains a variety of inorganic ions, organic acids, sugars, enzymes, secondary metabolic products Important in water uptake for cell enlargement Smaller vocuoles combine to form single large vocuoles

Nucleus

Is the information of the cell Contains cells genetic material deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) Genes in DNA encode information for the synthesis of ribonucleic acid (RNA) RNA is exported to the cytoplasm where it directs the synthesis of specific proteins

Source: Stern, 2006.

Endoplasmic Reticulum and Golgi Complex

The Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER) and the Golgi Complex together form an elaborate system of membranes involved in lipid and protein biosynthesis and secretion Protein synthesized on rough ER (associated with ribosomes) are passed through the membrane into the lumen, move into region of smooth ER The protein in ER modified and sugars are added to form glycoproteins Glycoproteins are then packed in spherical transport vesicles that bud off the smooth ER

Source: Stern, 2006.

The golgi complex is a stack of flattened, membranous sacs called cisterna Serves to assemble and process carbohydrate chains of glycoproteins Here the sugar chains are modified and enlarged and other sugars are added The modified glycoproteins leave the Golgi in secretory vesicles, which deliver their contents to sites inside the cell for protein storage
Source: Stern, 2006.

Mitochondria

The mitochondria and chloroplasts are the two energy-transducing organelles in plants cells Mitochondria are the site of cellular respiration, the process in which the energy of sugar oxidation is used to drive the synthesis of adenosine triphosphate (ATP) The ATP is then exported to other regions of the cell for various cellular activities

Source: Stern, 2006.

Plastids

Plastics are a family of double membrane-bound organelles common to plant cells Chloroplasts contain the photosynthetic pigments, carry out photosynthesis and responsible for the prominent green colour of leaves Chromoplasts contain pigments other than chlorophylls Colourless plastids are called leucoplasts, leucoplasts that accumulate starch called amyloplasts

Source: Stern, 2006.

Source: Rost, Barbour, Stocking and Murphy, 2006.

Source: Rost, Barbour, Stocking and Murphy, 2006.

Microbodies

Small organelles and bound by a single membrane Specialized roles in specific metabolic pathways and are usually characterized by a particular enzymes or enzymes The site of protein synthesis Ribosomes are complex aggregated of RNA and protein, which appear as small granules

Ribosomes

CYTOSKELETON

The cytoskeleton plays vital roles in determining the organization of cytoplasm and cell shape, and in cell division, growth and differentiation Composed of 2 different elements: microtubules and microfilaments Microtubules are constantly being assembled, disassembled, and rearranged as the cell divides, enlarges, and differentiates Microfilaments control the direction of cytoplasmic particles and organelles around the periphery of the cell

CELLS AND TISSUES

Cell is the basic unit of life and the fundamental morphological unit of the plant body Tissue is a group of cells whose structure or function, or both are distinct from others A plant begins as a fertilized egg (zygote), in the ovary of a flower Zygote undergoes cell division and differentiation, giving rise to an embryo Embryo has root (radicle) and shoot (plumule)

Regions of continued cell division called meristems

Apical meristems located at the apex of the shoot and the root; responsible for adding to the length of the shoot and root axis (primary growth) Lateral meristems located in the vascular cambium; responsible in increase in girth or thickening of the stems and roots (secondary growth)

Epidermis Is a superficial tissue that forms a continuous layer over the surface of the primary plant body Epidermis cells are usually regular in shape, are appressed very tightly together, and their outer walls are covered with a waxy cuticle Some cells are specialized as hairs (trichomes); guard cells in leaves; cork

Parenchyma Cells found throughout the plant body in the cortical regions of stems and roots and in the mesophyll (meso, middle; phyll, leaf) of leaves, and are scattered throughout the vascular tissues Parenchyma cells serve primarily in photosynthesis (sometimes called chlorenchyma), storage, and wound healing

Supporting tissues Two supporting tissues are collenchyma and sclerenchyma

Collenchyma: parenchyma cells that are specialized for support in young tissues; found in the cortex of stems and petioles or along the veins in leaves Schlerenchyma: Sclerids (polyhedral or branched) and Fibers (very long and slender) Both sclerids and fibers have thick secondary walls that may be heavily lignified

Vascular Tissues Concerned primarily with the distribution of nutrients, water, and photosynthesis products Two types: xylem and phloem

Xylem: water conduction, storage and support Phloem: distribution of primarily organic molecules between photosynthesis/storage tissues and regions of active growth

PLANT ORGANS
The principal organs of a plant are roots, stems, leaves, flower, and fruits Roots: consists of stele (xylem, phloem, pericycle and endodermis), cortex and epidermis; functions of root are anchorage, storage, water/nutrient absorption Stem: the vascular tissues are arranged in bundles & scattered (monocotyledonous) and concentric rings enclosing a central pith in dicotyledonous

Leaves: composed of an upper and lower epidermis, enclose mesophyll (photosynthetic parenchyma); Two types of mesophyll: palisade mesophyll (tightly packed, elongated cells toward the upper leaf surface) and spongy mesophyll (loosely packed, irregular cells with an extensive network of air spaces)